--- title: "FCL.210 Training course — Part-FCL · Avioverse" description: "Applicants for a PPL shall complete a training course at an ATO or a DTO." url: "https://avioverse.aero/regulations/easa/aircrew/part-fcl/subpart-c/fcl-210" --- # FCL.210 Training course ANNEX I (Part-FCL) · Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 · EAR revision 25 Nov 2025 IR Implementing rule ## FCL.210 Training course (a) Applicants for a PPL shall complete a training course at an ATO or a DTO. (b) The course shall include theoretical knowledge and flight instruction appropriate to the privileges of the PPL applied for. (c) Theoretical knowledge instruction and flight instruction may be completed at a DTO or at an ATO different from the one where applicants have commenced their training. \[applicable until 17 February 2026 - Regulation (EU) 2020/359] (a) Applicants for a PPL or a GPL shall complete a training course at an ATO or a DTO. (b) The course shall include theoretical knowledge and flight instruction appropriate to the privileges of the PPL or GPL applied for. (c) Theoretical knowledge instruction and flight instruction may be completed at a DTO or at an ATO different from the one where applicants have commenced their training. \[applicable from 18 February 2026 - Regulation (EU) 2025/134] IR · FCL.210 — Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 · Regulation (EU) 2025/134 · Aircrew Easy Access Rules · EAR revision 25 Nov 2025 AMC Acceptable means of compliance ## AMC1 FCL.210 PPL(A) Training course FLIGHT INSTRUCTION FOR THE PPL(A) (a) Entry to training Before being accepted for training an [applicant](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/applicant) should be informed that the appropriate medical certificate must be obtained before solo flying is permitted. (b) Flight instruction (1) The PPL(A) flight instruction syllabus takes into account the principles of [threat](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/threat) and [error management](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/error-management) and also covers: (i) pre-flight operations, including mass and balance determination, [aircraft](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/aircraft) inspection and servicing; (ii) aerodrome and traffic pattern operations, collision avoidance precautions and procedures; (iii) control of the aircraft by external visual reference; (iv) flight at critically low air speeds, recognition of, and recovery from, incipient and full stalls; (v) flight at critically high air speeds, recognition of, and recovery from, spiral dive; (vi) normal and crosswind take-offs and landings; (vii) maximum performance (short field and obstacle clearance) takeoffs, short-field landings; (viii) flight by reference solely to instruments, including the completion of a level 180 ° turn; (ix) [cross-country](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/cross-country) flying using visual reference, dead reckoning and radio navigation aids; (x) emergency operations, including simulated [aeroplane](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/aeroplane) equipment malfunctions; (xi) operations to, from and transiting controlled aerodromes, compliance with air traffic services procedures, communication procedures and phraseology. (2) Before allowing applicants for a PPL(A) to undertake their first solo flight, the FI should ensure that the applicants can use R/T communication and can operate the required systems and equipment. (c) Syllabus of flight instruction (1) The numbering of exercises should be used primarily as an exercise reference list and as a broad instructional sequencing guide; therefore the demonstrations and practices need not necessarily be given in the order listed. The actual order and content will depend upon the following interrelated factors: (i) the applicant’s progress and ability; (ii) the weather conditions affecting the flight; (iii) the [flight time](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/flight-time) available; (iv) instructional technique considerations; (v) the local operating environment; (vi) applicability of the exercises to the aeroplane. (2) Each of the exercises involves the need for the applicant to be aware of the needs of good [airmanship](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/airmanship) and look-out, which should be emphasised at all times. (i) Exercise 1a: Familiarisation with the aeroplane: (A) characteristics of the aeroplane; (B) cockpit layout; (C) systems; (D) checklists, drills and controls. (ii) Exercise 1b: Emergency drills: (A) action if fire on the ground and in the air; (B) engine cabin and electrical system fire; (C) systems failure; (D) escape drills, location and use of emergency equipment and exits. (iii) Exercise 2: Preparation for and action after flight: (A) flight authorisation and aeroplane acceptance; (B) serviceability documents; (C) equipment required, maps, etc.; (D) external checks; (E) internal checks; (F) harness, seat or rudder panel adjustments; (G) starting and warm-up checks; (H) power checks; (I) running down system checks and switching off the engine; (J) parking, security and picketing (for example tie down); (K) completion of authorisation sheet and serviceability documents. (iv) Exercise 3: Air experience: flight exercise. (v) Exercise 4: Effects of controls: (A) primary effects when laterally level and when banked; (B) further effects of aileron and rudder; (C) effects of: (a) air speed; (b) slipstream; (c) power; (d) trimming controls; (e) flaps; (f) other controls, as applicable. (D) operation of: (a) mixture control; (b) carburettor heat; (c) cabin heating or ventilation. (vi) Exercise 5a: Taxiing: (A) pre-taxi checks; (B) starting, control of speed and stopping; (C) engine handling; (D) control of direction and turning; (E) turning in confined spaces; (F) parking area procedure and precautions; (G) effects of wind and use of flying controls; (H) effects of ground surface; (I) freedom of rudder movement; (J) marshalling signals; (K) instrument checks; (L) air traffic control procedures. (vii) Exercise 5b: Emergencies: brake and steering failure. (viii) Exercise 6: Straight and level: (A) at normal cruising power, attaining and maintaining straight and level flight; (B) flight at critically high air speeds; (C) demonstration of inherent stability; (D) control in pitch, including use of trim; (E) lateral level, direction and balance and trim; (F) at selected air speeds (use of power); (G) during speed and configuration changes; (H) use of instruments for precision. (ix) Exercise 7: Climbing: (A) entry, maintaining the normal and max rate climb and levelling off; (B) levelling off at selected altitudes; (C) en-route climb (cruise climb); (D) climbing with flap down; (E) recovery to normal climb; (F) maximum angle of climb; (G) use of instruments for precision. (x) Exercise 8: Descending: (A) entry, maintaining and levelling off; (B) levelling off at selected altitudes; (C) glide, powered and cruise descent (including effect of power and air speed); (D) side slipping (on suitable types); (E) use of instruments for precision flight. (xi) Exercise 9: Turning: (A) entry and maintaining medium level turns; (B) resuming straight flight; (C) faults in the turn (for example in correct pitch, bank and balance); (D) climbing turns; (E) descending turns; (F) faults in the turns (slipping and skidding on suitable types); (G) turns onto selected headings, use of gyro heading indicator and compass; (H) use of instruments for precision. (xii) Exercise 10a: Slow flight: Note: the objective is to improve the student’s ability to recognise inadvertent flight at critically low speeds and provide practice in maintaining the aeroplane in balance while returning to normal air speed. (A) safety checks; (B) introduction to slow flight; (C) controlled flight down to critically slow air speed; (D) application of full power with correct attitude and balance to achieve normal climb speed. (xiii) Exercise 10b: Stalling: (A) safety checks; (B) symptoms; (C) recognition; (D) clean stall and recovery without power and with power; (E) recovery when a wing drops; (F) approach to stall in the approach and in the landing configurations, with and without power and recovery at the incipient stage. (xiv) Exercise 11: Spin avoidance: Note: The limitations of the training aircraft as set out in the AFM (manoeuvre limitations, mass and balance calculations) need to be carefully considered. (A) safety checks; (B) stalling and approaching the incipient spin stage (stall with asymmetric condition, with not-centred slip indicator); (C) instructor - induced distractions during the stall. (xv) Exercise 12: Take-off and climb to downwind position: (A) pre-take-off checks; (B) into wind take-off; (C) safeguarding the nose wheel; (D) crosswind take-off; (E) drills during and after take-off; (F) short take-off and soft field procedure/techniques including performance calculations; (G) noise abatement procedures. (xvi) Exercise 13: Circuit, approach and landing: (A) circuit procedures, downwind and base leg; (B) powered approach and landing; (C) safeguarding the nose wheel; (D) effect of wind on approach and touchdown speeds and use of flaps; (E) crosswind approach and landing; (F) glide approach and landing; (G) short landing and soft field procedures or techniques; (H) flapless approach and landing; (I) wheel landing (tail wheel aeroplanes); (J) missed approach and go-around; (K) noise abatement procedures. (xvii) Exercise 12/13: Emergencies: (A) abandoned take-off; (B) simulated engine failure after take-off; (C) rejected and go-around; (D) missed approach; (E) simulated engine failure and restart procedures in-flight. Note: In the interests of safety it will be necessary for pilots that are trained on nose-wheel aeroplanes to undergo dual conversion training before flying tail-wheel aeroplanes, and vice-versa. (xviii) Exercise 14: First solo: (A) instructor’s briefing (B) use of required equipment; (C) observation of flight and debriefing by instructor; Note: During flights immediately following the solo circuit consolidation, the following should be revised: (1) procedures for leaving and rejoining the circuit; (2) the local area, restrictions, map reading; (3) use of radio aids for homing; (4) turns using magnetic compass, compass errors. (xix) Exercise 15: Advanced turning: (A) steep turns (45°), level and descending; (B) stalling in the turn and recovery; (C) recoveries from unusual attitudes, including spiral dives. (xx) Exercise 16: Forced landing without power: (A) forced landing procedure; (B) choice of landing area, provision for change of plan; (C) gliding distance; (D) descent plan; (E) key positions; (F) engine cooling; (G) engine failure checks; (H) use of radio; (I) base leg; (J) final approach; (K) landing; (L) actions after landing. (xxi) Exercise 17: Precautionary landing: (A) full procedure away from aerodrome to break-off height; (B) occasions necessitating; (C) in-flight conditions; (D) landing area selection: (a) normal aerodrome; (b) disused aerodrome; (c) ordinary field. (E) circuit and approach; (F) actions after landing. (xxii) Exercise 18a: Navigation: (A) flight planning: (a) weather forecast and actuals; (b) map selection and preparation: (1) choice of route; (2) controlled airspace; (3) danger, prohibited and restricted areas; (4) safety altitudes. (c) calculations: (1) magnetic heading(s) and time(s) en-route; (2) fuel consumption; (3) mass and balance; (4) mass and performance. (d) flight information: (1) NOTAMs etc.; (2) radio frequencies; (3) selection of alternate aerodromes. (e) aeroplane documentation; (f) notification of the flight: (1) pre-flight administrative procedures; (2) flight plan form. (B) departure: (a) organisation of cockpit workload; (b) departure procedures: (1) altimeter settings; (2) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace; (3) setting heading procedure; (4) noting of ETAs. (c) maintenance of altitude and heading; (d) revisions of ETA and heading; (e) log keeping; (f) use of radio; (g) use of navaids; (h) minimum weather conditions for continuation of flight; (i) in-flight decisions; (j) transiting controlled or regulated airspace; (k) diversion procedures; (l) uncertainty of position procedure; (m) lost procedure. (C) arrival and aerodrome joining procedure: (a) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace; (b) altimeter setting; (c) entering the traffic pattern; (d) circuit procedures; (e) parking; (f) security of aeroplane; (g) refuelling; (h) closing of flight plan, if appropriate; (i) post-flight administrative procedures. (xxiii) Exercise 18b: Navigation problems at lower levels and in reduced visibility: (A) actions before descending; (B) hazards (for example obstacles and terrain); (C) difficulties of map reading; (D) effects of wind and turbulence; (E) vertical situational awareness (avoidance of controlled flight into terrain); (F) avoidance of noise sensitive areas; (G) joining the circuit; (H) bad weather circuit and landing. (xxiv) Exercise 18c: Radio navigation: (A) use of GNSS: (a) selection of waypoints; (b) to or from indications and orientation; (c) [error](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/error) messages. (B) use of VHF omni range: (a) availability, AIP and frequencies; (b) selection and identification; (c) OBS; (d) to or from indications and orientation; (e) CDI; (f) determination of radial; (g) intercepting and maintaining a radial; (h) VOR passage; (i) obtaining a fix from two VORs. (C) use of ADF equipment: NDBs: (a) availability, AIP and frequencies; (b) selection and identification; (c) orientation relative to the beacon; (d) homing. (D) use of VHF/DF: (a) availability, AIP, frequencies; (b) R/T procedures and ATC liaison; (c) obtaining a QDM and homing. (E) use of en-route or terminal radar: (a) availability and AIP; (b) procedures and ATC liaison; (c) pilot’s responsibilities; (d) secondary surveillance radar: (1) transponders; (2) code selection; (3) interrogation and reply. (F) use of DME: (a) station selection and identification; (b) modes of operation: distance, groundspeed and time to run. (xxv) Exercise 19: Basic instrument flight: (A) physiological sensations; (B) instrument appreciation; attitude instrument flight; (C) instrument limitations; (D) basic manoeuvres: (a) straight and level at various air speeds and configurations; (b) climbing and descending; (c) standard rate turns, climbing and descending, onto selected headings; (d) recoveries from climbing and descending turns. (d) BITD (1) A BITD may be used for flight training for: (i) flight by reference solely to instruments; (ii) navigation using radio navigation aids; (iii) basic instrument flight. (2) The use of the BITD should be subject to the following: (i) the training should be complemented by exercises on an aeroplane; (ii) the record of the parameters of the flight must be available; (iii) A FI(A) or STI(A) should conduct the instruction. AMC · AMC1 FCL.210 — Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 · ED Decision 2025/002/R · Aircrew Easy Access Rules · EAR revision 25 Nov 2025 AMC Acceptable means of compliance ## AMC2 FCL.210 PPL(H) – Training course FLIGHT INSTRUCTION FOR THE PPL(H) (a) Entry to training Before being accepted for training an [applicant](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/applicant) should be informed that the appropriate medical certificate must be obtained before solo flying is permitted. (b) Ground instruction Enhanced ground instruction in weather interpretation, planning and route assessment, decision making on encountering DVE including reversing course or conducting a precautionary landing. (c) Flight instruction (1) The PPL(H) flight instruction syllabus should take into account the principles of [threat](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/threat) and [error management](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/error-management) and cover: (i) pre-flight operations, including mass and balance determination, [helicopter](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/helicopter) inspection and servicing; (ii) aerodrome and traffic pattern operations, collision avoidance precautions and procedures; (iii) control of the helicopter by external visual reference; (iv) take-offs, landings, hovering, look-out turns and normal transitions from and to the hover; (v) emergency procedures, basic autorotations, simulated engine failure, ground resonance recovery if relevant to type; (vi) sideways and backwards flight, turns on the spot; (vii) recognition of and recovery from the incipient vortex ring state; (viii) touchdown autorotations, simulated engine-off landings, practice forced landings. Simulated equipment malfunctions and emergency procedures relating to malfunctions of engines, controls, electrical and hydraulic circuits; (ix) steep turns; (x) transitions, quick stops, out of wind manoeuvres, sloping ground landings and take-offs; (xi) limited power and confined area operations, including selection of and operations to and from unprepared sites; (xii) flight by sole reference to basic flight instruments, including completion of a level 180° turn and recovery from unusual attitudes to simulate inadvertent entry into cloud (this training may be conducted by an FI(H)); (xiii) [cross-country](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/cross-country) flying by using visual reference, DR, GNNS and, where available, radio navigation aids; simulation of deteriorating weather conditions and actions to divert or conduct precautionary landing; (xiv) operations to, from and transiting controlled aerodromes; compliance with air traffic services procedures, communication procedures and phraseology. (2) Before allowing applicants for a PPL(H) to undertake their first solo flight, the FI should ensure that the applicants can use R/T communication and can operate the required systems and equipment. (3) Wherever possible, flight simulation should be used to demonstrate to student pilots the effects of flight into DVE and to enhance their understanding and need for avoidance of this potentially fatal flight regime. (d) Syllabus of flight instruction (1) The numbering of exercises should be used primarily as an exercise reference list and as a broad instructional sequencing guide; therefore the demonstrations and practices need not necessarily be given in the order listed. The actual order and content will depend upon the following interrelated factors: (i) the applicant’s progress and ability; (ii) the weather conditions affecting the flight; (iii) the [flight time](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/flight-time) available; (iv) instructional technique considerations; (v) the local operating environment; (vi) applicability of the exercises to the helicopter. (2) Each of the exercises involves the need for the applicant to be aware of the needs of good [airmanship](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/airmanship) and look-out, which should be emphasised at all times. (i) Exercise 1a: Familiarisation with the helicopter: (A) characteristics of the helicopter, external features; (B) cockpit layout; (C) systems; (D) checklists, procedures and controls. (ii) Exercise 1b: Emergency procedures: (A) action if fire on the ground and in the air; (B) engine, cabin and electrical system fire; (C) systems failures; (D) escape drills, location and use of emergency equipment and exits. (iii) Exercise 2: Preparation for and action after flight: (A) flight authorisation and helicopter acceptance; (B) serviceability documents; (C) equipment required, maps, etc.; (D) external checks; (E) internal checks; (F) seat, harness and flight controls adjustments; (G) starting and warm-up checks clutch engagement and starting rotors; (H) power checks; (I) running down system checks and switching off the engine; (J) parking, security and picketing; (K) completion of authorisation sheet and serviceability documents. (iv) Exercise 3: Air experience: (A) to introduce the student to rotary wing flight; (B) flight exercise. (v) Exercise 4: Effects of controls: (A) function of flight controls, primary and secondary effect; (B) effects of: (a) air speed; (b) power changes (torque); (c) yaw (sideslip); (d) disc loading (bank and flare); (e) controls of selecting hydraulics on/off (f) control friction. (C) instruments; (D) use of carburettor heat or anti-icing control. (vi) Exercise 5: Power and attitude changes: (A) relationship between cyclic control position, disc attitude, fuselage attitude and air speed; (B) flapback; (C) power required diagram in relation to air speed; (D) power and air speed changes in level flight; (E) use of instruments for precision; (F) engine and air speed limitations. (vii) Exercise 6: Straight and level: (A) at normal cruising power, attaining and maintaining straight and level flight; (B) control in pitch, including use of control friction or trim; (C) maintaining direction and balance, (ball or yawstring use); (D) setting power for selected air speeds and speed changes; (E) use of instruments for precision. (viii) Exercise 7: Climbing: (A) optimum climb speed, best angle or rate of climb from power required diagram; (B) initiation, maintaining the normal and maximum rate of climb, levelling off; (C) levelling off at selected altitudes or heights (D) use of instruments for precision. (ix) Exercise 8: Descending: (A) optimum descent speed, best angle or rate of descent from power required diagram; (B) initiation, maintaining and levelling off; (C) levelling off at selected altitudes or heights; (D) descent (including effect of power and air speed); (E) use of instruments for precision. (x) Exercise 9: Turning: (A) initiation and maintaining medium level turns; (B) resuming straight flight; (C) altitude, bank and co-ordination; (D) climbing and descending turns and effect on rate of climb or descent; (E) turns onto selected headings, use of gyro heading indicator and compass; (F) use of instruments for precision. (xi) Exercise 10: Basic autorotation: (A) safety checks, verbal warning and look-out; (B) entry, development and characteristics; (C) control of air speed and RRPM, rotor and engine limitations; (D) effect of AUM, IAS, disc loading, G forces and density altitude; (E) re-engagement and go-around procedures (throttle over-ride or ERPM control); (F) awareness of increased risk of vortex condition during power recovery; (G) gentle and medium turns in autorotation; (H) demonstration of variable flare simulated engine off landing. (xii) Exercise 11a: Hovering: (A) demonstrate hover IGE, importance of wind effect and attitude, ground cushion, stability in the hover and effects of over controlling; (B) student holding cyclic stick only; (C) student handling collective lever (and throttle) only; (D) student handling collective lever, (throttle) and pedals; (E) student handling all controls; (F) demonstration of ground effect; (G) demonstration of wind effect; (H) demonstrate gentle forward running touchdown; (I) specific hazards for example snow, dust and litter. (xiii) Exercise 11b: Hover taxiing and spot turns: (A) revise hovering; (B) precise ground speed and height control; (C) effect of wind direction on helicopter attitude and control margin; (D) control and co-ordination during spot turns; (E) carefully introduce gentle forward running touchdown. (xiv) Exercise 11c: Hovering and taxiing emergencies: (A) revise hovering and gentle forward running touchdown, explain (demonstrate where applicable) effect of hydraulics failure in the hover; (B) demonstrate simulated engine failure in the hover and hover taxi; (C) demonstrate dangers of mishandling and over-pitching. (xv) Exercise 12: Take-off and landing: (A) pre-take-off checks or drills; (B) look-out; (C) lifting to hover; (D) after take-off checks; (E) danger of horizontal movement near ground; (F) danger of mishandling and overpitching; (G) landing (without sideways or backwards movement); (H) after landing checks or drills; (I) take-off and landing crosswind and downwind. (xvi) Exercise 13: Transitions from hover to climb and approach to hover: (A) look-out; (B) revise take-off and landing; (C) ground effect, translational lift and its effects; (D) flapback and its effects; (E) effect of wind speed and direction during transitions from or to the hover; (F) the constant angle approach; (G) demonstration of variable flare simulated engine off landing. (xvii) Exercise 14a: Circuit, approach and landing: (A) revise transitions from hover to climb and approach to hover; (B) circuit procedures, downwind and base leg; (C) approach and landing with power; (D) pre-landing checks; (E) effect of wind on approach and IGE hover; (F) crosswind approach and landing; (G) go-around; (H) noise abatement procedures. (xviii) Exercise 14b: Steep and limited power approaches and landings: (A) revise the constant angle approach; (B) the steep approach (explain danger of high sink rate and low air speed) (C) limited power approach (explain danger of high speed at touch down); (D) use of the ground effect; (E) variable flare simulated engine off landing. (xix) Exercise 14c: Emergency procedures: (A) abandoned take-off; (B) missed approach and go-around; (C) hydraulic off landing (if applicable); (D) tail rotor control or tail rotor drive failure (briefing only) (E) simulated emergencies in the circuit to include: (a) hydraulics failure; (b) simulated engine failure on take-off, crosswind, downwind and base leg; (c) governor failure. (xx) Exercise 15: First solo: (A) instructor’s briefing, observation of flight and debriefing; (B) warn of change of attitude from reduced and laterally displaced weight; (C) warn of low tail, low skid or wheel during hover, landing; (D) warn of dangers of loss of RRPM and overpitching; (E) pre-take-off checks; (F) into wind take-off; (G) procedures during and after take-off; (H) normal circuit, approaches and landings; (I) action if an emergency. (xxi) Exercise 16: Sideways and backwards hover manoeuvring: (A) manoeuvring sideways flight heading into wind; (B) manoeuvring backwards flight heading into wind; (C) combination of sideways and backwards manoeuvring; (D) manoeuvring sideways and backwards and heading out of wind; (E) stability and weather cocking; (F) recovery from backwards manoeuvring (pitch nose down); (G) limitations for sideways and backwards manoeuvring. (xxii) Exercise 17: Spot turns: (A) revise hovering into wind and downwind; (B) turn on spot through 360°: (a) around pilots position; (b) around tail rotor; (c) around helicopter geometric centre; (d) square and safe visibility clearing turn. (C) rotor RPM control, torque effect, cyclic limiting stops due to CG position and wind speed and direction. (xxiii) Exercise 18: Hover OGE – Vortex ring — unanticipated yaw (LTE): (A) establishing hover OGE; (B) drift, height or power control; (C) demonstration of incipient stage of vortex ring, recognition and recovery (from a safe altitude); (D) Demonstration of unanticipated yaw which could lead to a perceived loss of tail rotor effectiveness (LTE). (xxiv) Exercise 19: Simulated EOL: (A) the effect of weight, disc loading, density attitude and RRPM decay; (B) revise basic autorotation entry; (C) optimum use of cyclic and collective to control speed or RRPM; (D) variable flare simulated EOL; (E) demonstrate constant attitude simulated EOL; (F) demonstrate simulated EOL from hover or hover taxi; (G) demonstrate simulated EOL from transition and low level. (xxv) Exercise 20: Advanced autorotation: (A) over a selected point at various height and speed; (B) revise basic autorotation: note ground distance covered; (C) range autorotation; (D) low speed autorotation; (E) constant attitude autorotation (terminate at safe altitude); (F) ‘S’ turns; (G) turns through 180° and 360°; (H) effects on angles of descent, IAS, RRPM and effect of AUM. (xxvi) Exercise 21: Practice forced landings: (A) procedure and choice of the forced landing area; (B) forced landing checks and crash action; (C) re-engagement and go-around procedures. (xxvii) Exercise 22: Steep turns: (A) steep (level) turns (30° bank); (B) maximum rate turns (45° bank if possible); (C) steep autorotative turns; (D) faults in the turn: balance, attitude, bank and co-ordination; (E) RRPM control and disc loading; (F) vibration and control feedback; (G) effect of wind at low level. (xxviii) Exercise 23: Transitions: (A) revise ground effect, translational lift and flapback; (B) maintaining constant height, (20-30 ft AGL); (C) transition from hover to minimum 50 knots IAS and back to hover; (D) demonstrate effect of wind. (xxix) Exercise 24: Quick stops: (A) use of power and controls; (B) effect of wind; (C) quick stops into wind; (D) quick stops from crosswind and downwind terminating into wind; (E) awareness of the danger of vortex ring; (F) danger of high disc loading. (xxx) Exercise 25a: Navigation: (A) flight planning: (a) weather forecast and actuals; (b) map selection and preparation and use; (1) choice of route: (2) controlled airspace, danger and prohibited areas; (3) safety altitudes and noise abatement considerations. (c) calculations: (1) magnetic heading(s) and time(s) en-route; (2) fuel consumption; (3) mass and balance. (d) flight information: (1) NOTAMs, etc.; (2) radio frequencies; (e) helicopter documentation; (f) notification of the flight: (1) pre-flight administrative procedures; (2) flight plan form (where appropriate). (B) departure: (a) organisation of cockpit workload; (b) departure procedures: (1) altimeter settings; (2) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace; (3) setting heading procedure; (4) noting of ETAs. (c) maintenance of height or altitude and heading; (d) revisions of ETA and heading: (1) 10° line, double track and track [error](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/error) and closing angle; (2) 1 in 60 rule; (3) amending an ETA. (e) log keeping; (f) use of radio; (g) use of navaids (if fitted); (h) minimum weather conditions for continuation of flight; (i) in-flight decisions; (j) transiting controlled or regulated airspace; (k) uncertainty of position procedure; (l) lost procedure. (C) arrival and aerodrome joining procedure: (a) ATC liaison in controlled or regulated airspace; (b) altimeter setting; (c) entering the traffic pattern; (d) circuit procedures. (e) parking; (f) security of helicopter; (g) refuelling; (h) closing of flight plan (if appropriate); (i) post-flight administrative procedures. (xxxi) Exercise 25b: Navigation problems at low heights and in reduced visibility: (A) actions before descending; (B) hazards (for example obstacles and other [aircraft](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/aircraft)); (C) difficulties of map reading; (D) effects of wind and turbulence; (E) avoidance of noise sensitive areas; (F) actions in the event of encountering DVE; (G) decision to divert or conduct precautionary landing; (H) bad weather circuit and landing; (I) appropriate procedures and choice of landing area; (J) precautionary landing. (xxxii) Exercise 25c: Radio navigation: (A) use of GNSS: (a) selection of waypoints; (b) to or from indications and orientation; (c) error messages; (d) hazards of over-reliance on the use of GNSS in the continuation of flight in DVE. (B) use of VHF omni range: (a) availability, AIP and frequencies; (b) selection and identification; (c) OBS; (d) to or from indications and orientation; (e) CDI; (f) determination of radial; (g) intercepting and maintaining a radial; (h) VOR passage; (i) obtaining a fix from two VORs. (C) use of ADF equipment: NDBs: (a) availability, AIP and frequencies; (b) selection and identification; (c) orientation relative to the beacon; (d) homing. (D) use of VHF/DF: (a) availability, AIP and frequencies; (b) RTF procedures and ATC liaison; (c) obtaining a QDM and homing. (E) use of en-route or terminal radar: (a) availability and AIP; (b) procedures and ATC liaison; (c) pilots responsibilities; (d) secondary surveillance radar (if transponder fitted): (1) transponders; (2) code selection; (3) interrogation and reply. (F) use of DME: (a) station selection and identification; (b) modes of operation: distance, groundspeed and time to run. (xxxiii) Exercise 26: Advanced take-off, landings and transitions: (A) landing and take-off out of wind (performance reduction); (B) ground effect, translational lift and directional stability variation when out of wind; (C) downwind transitions; (D) vertical take-off over obstacles; (E) running take-off; (F) cushion creep take-off; (G) reconnaissance of landing site; (H) running landing; (I) zero speed landing; (J) crosswind and downwind landings; (K) steep approach; (L) go-around. (xxxiv) Exercise 27: Sloping ground: (A) limitations and assessing slope angle; (B) wind and slope relationship: blade and control stops; (C) effect of CG when on slope; (D) ground effect on slope and power required; (E) right skid up slope; (F) left skid up slope; (G) nose up slope; (H) avoidance of dynamic roll over, dangers of soft ground and sideways movement on touchdown; (I) danger of striking main or tail rotor by harsh control movement near ground. (xxxv) Exercise 28: Limited power: (A) take-off power check; (B) vertical take-off over obstacles; (C) in-flight power check; (D) running landing; (E) zero speed landing; (F) approach to low hover; (G) approach to hover; (H) approach to hover OGE; (I) steep approach; (J) go-around. (xxxvi) Exercise 29: Confined areas: (A) landing capability and performance assessment; (B) locating landing site and assessing wind speed and direction; (C) reconnaissance of landing site; (D) select markers; (E) select direction and type of approach; (F) circuit; (G) approach to committed point and go-around; (H) approach; (I) clearing turn; (J) landing; (K) power check and performance assessment in and out of ground effect; (L) normal take-off to best angle of climb speed; (M) vertical take-off from hover. (xxxvii) Exercise 30: Basic instrument flight: (A) physiological sensations; (B) instrument appreciation: (a) attitude instrument flight; (b) instrument scan. (C) instrument limitations; (D) basic manoeuvres: (a) straight and level at various air speeds and configurations; (b) climbing and descending; (c) standard rate turns, climbing and descending, onto selected headings. (E) recoveries from climbing and descending turns; (F) recoveries from unusual attitudes. AMC · AMC2 FCL.210 — Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 · ED Decision 2025/002/R · Aircrew Easy Access Rules · EAR revision 25 Nov 2025 AMC Acceptable means of compliance ## AMC3 FCL.210 Training course FLIGHT INSTRUCTION FOR THE [GYROPLANE](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/gyroplane) PILOT LICENCE (a) Entry to training. Before being accepted for training, an [applicant](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/applicant) should be informed that the appropriate medical certificate must be obtained before solo flying is permitted. (b) Flight instruction (1) The GPL flight instruction syllabus takes into account the principles of [threat](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/threat) and [error management](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/error-management) and also covers: (i) pre-flight operations, including mass and balance determination, and [aircraft](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/aircraft) inspection and servicing; (ii) ground manoeuvring and rotor handling; (iii) aerodrome and traffic pattern operations, and collision avoidance precautions and procedures; (iv) control of a gyroplane by external visual reference; (v) flight at altitude and at slow airspeed, and maintaining altitude; (vi) flight on idle power and at very slow airspeed, and maintaining rudder authority; (vii) normal and crosswind take-offs and landings; (viii) maximum performance take-offs (including short-field take-offs and obstacle clearance) and short-field landings; (ix) [cross-country](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/cross-country) flying using visual references, dead reckoning and electronic navigation aids; (x) emergency operations, including simulated gyroplane equipment malfunctions; (xi) operations to, from and transiting controlled aerodromes, including compliance with air traffic services procedures, communication procedures and phraseology. (2) Before allowing the applicant for a GPL to undertake their first solo flight, the FI should ensure that the applicant can use R/T communication and can operate the required systems and equipment. (c) Syllabus of flight instruction (1) The numbering of exercises should be used primarily for reference and as a broad instructional sequencing guide; therefore, the demonstrations and practice need not necessarily occur in the order listed. The actual order and content will depend on the following interrelated factors: (i) the applicant’s progress and ability, (ii) the weather conditions affecting the flight, (iii) the [flight time](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/flight-time) available, (iv) instructional technique considerations, (v) the local operating environment, (vi) the applicability of exercises to the type of gyroplane used. (2) Each of the exercises requires the applicant to be aware of the need for good [airmanship](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/airmanship) and lookout, which should be emphasised at all times. (3) Syllabus and list of exercises (i) Exercise 1: Introduction to the gyroplane: (A) safety considerations around an airfield; (B) introduction to the gyroplane; (C) essential pre-flight preparation; (D) safety briefing on in emergency drills; (E) essential in-flight airmanship; (F) introduction to rotary-wing flight in a gyroplane. (ii) Exercise 2: Basic skills 1 — lookout, speed and direction: (A) primary controls, instruments and cockpit layout; (B) lookout procedure; (C) use of the stick to control speed and direction. (iii) Exercise 3: Basic skills 2 – trim, height and balance: (A) trim (pitch and roll, as applicable), avoiding pilot-induced oscillation; (B) use of the throttle to control height; (C) use of pedals to control balance. (iv) Exercise 4: Start-up, taxiing and shutdown: (A) pre-flight planning (pilot/passenger; aircraft, including documentation; maps and weather; flight content; human factors) and risk mitigation; (B) handling of the gyroplane prior to start-up, including external and internal checks, and harness, seat or rudder panel adjustments; (C) pre-start-up and start-up procedure; (D) taxiing (rotor stationary); (E) turning in confined spaces; (F) power and pre-runway checks; (G) post-landing checks and procedures; (H) parking, shutdown, and security and picketing (e.g. tie-down); (I) completion of authorisation sheet and serviceability documents. (v) Exercise 5: Understanding power changes: (A) cruise datum power; (B) the secondary effect of power changes on balance; (C) the secondary effect of power changes on roll; (D) the secondary effect of power changes on pitch; (E) transitioning to climbs, descents and level-outs at constant speed and balance. (vi) Exercise 6: Coordinated medium-level turns: (A) medium-level turns; (B) power requirements during a turn; (C) maintenance of balance during turns in different directions; (D) turning onto headings using a compass. (vii) Exercise 7: Correcting for wind: (A) wind terminology; (B) the technique for flying in a straight line with a strong crosswind; (C) determination of wind direction during flight. (viii) Exercise 8: Accurate height and speed: (A) the technique for fine-tuning height. (ix) Exercise 9: Climbing and descending performance: (A) the effect of power on the rate of climb and descent; (B) the effect of airspeed on the rate of climb and descent; (C) full-power climbs and idle-power descents. (x) Exercise 10: Climbing and descending turns: (A) the effect of the angle of bank on the rate of climb and descent; (B) maintenance of balance during full-power climbing turns, and the differences between right and left turns; (C) maintenance of balance during idle-power descending turns, and the differences between right and left turns. (xi) Exercise 11: [Significant](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/significant) speed changes and fast flight: (A) rapid acceleration and rapid deceleration to given speeds; (B) fast flight. (xii) Exercise 12: Flying the circuit pattern: (A) terminology related to the circuit pattern; (B) pre-landing checks; (C) how to fly an accurate circuit pattern; (D) maintenance of appropriate spacing for other traffic in the circuit; (E) go-around. (xiii) Exercise 13: Active rotor management: (A) performing active rotor management and taxiing with rotor turning; (B) building rotor speed during the early take-off phase; (C) ensuring a smooth transition to the wheel balance attitude prior to take-off; (D) stopping the gyroplane. (xiv) Exercise 14: Take-off – wind on the runway heading (A) lifting the gyroplane off the surface; (B) building airspeed and transitioning to climbing airspeed; (C) understanding the height/velocity avoidance curve; (D) rejecting take-offs and landing on the remaining runway; (E) trimming during take-off; (F) checks to conduct when climbing through 300 ft. (xv) Exercise 15: Take-off – different conditions: (A) crosswinds from the left and the right; (B) strong winds; (C) nil wind; (D) considerations for take-off performance; (E) determination of an appropriate take-off abortion point; (F) rough-ground take-offs; (G) smooth-surface take-offs; (H) immediate-departure take-offs and pre-rotating at the holding point. (xvi) Exercise 16: Landing – wind on the runway heading: (A) flying an accurate approach; (B) checks to conduct when descending through 300 ft; (C) extending a landing to touch down close to the exit point; (D) recovering from a [balloon](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/balloon) when landing. (xvii) Exercise 17: Landing – different conditions: (A) crosswinds – left and right; (B) considerations when taking a crosswind approach using the ‘split angle’ technique; (C) considerations when landing in strong winds; (D) considerations when landing in nil wind; (E) rough/soft ground. (xviii) Exercise 18: Precision landing: (A) the hazards related to precision landings; (B) the safe precision touchdown technique; (C) short-field landings. (xix) Exercise 19: Precision landing – idle power: (A) the importance of maintaining airspeed; (B) the technique for performing a precision landing when power is not available. (xx) Exercise 20: Departing and arriving at airfields: (A) departing from the airfield; (B) arriving at the airfield. (xxi) Exercise 21: Slow flight at a constant altitude ([helicopter](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/helicopter) mode): (A) performing HASEL (height, area, security, engine, lookout) checks before unusual manoeuvres; (B) flying on the backside of the power curve; (C) avoiding flying behind the power curve. (xxii) Exercise 22: Flight at minimum airspeed on idle power (parachute mode): (A) importance of maintaining rudder authority to avoid losing control; (B) establishing slow flight on idle power; (C) recovering speed when power is available; (D) recovering speed to a glide descent when power is not available; (E) recovering from an incipient slow rotation when rudder authority is lost. (xxiii) Exercise 23: Ground reference turns: (A) performing high-bank-angle turns; (B) turning in relation to a ground reference (with significant wind); (C) turning around a fixed point; (D) performing S-turns with a constant radius along a line feature. (xxiv) Exercise 24: Unusual attitudes: (A) the hazards of distraction and fixation; (B) recognition of unusual attitudes; (C) recovery from unusual attitudes: (a) excessive pitch-up; (b) excessive pitch-up and roll (left and right); (c) excessive pitch-down, close to never-exceed speed (VNE); (d) excessive pitch-down and roll (left and right), resulting in a spiral descent. (xxv) Exercise 25: Low flying: (A) legal issues related to flying low: (a) minimum height, (b) the ‘land clear’ rule, (c) noise and nuisance considerations; (B) hazards associated with flying low: (a) influence of the wind on flying low (speed perception, low-level turbulence), (b) terrain, wires, masts and cables, (c) effect of low flying on radio communication, (d) difficulties of map reading; (C) reduced-visibility flying: (a) vertical situational awareness, (b) bad weather / low-level-circuit joining, flying and landing; (D) consequences of engine failure when flying low and downwind (discussion). (xxvi) Exercise 26: Consolidation and en route airmanship: Note: This exercise is a continuation of Exercise 4, and the combination of these exercises is taught and consolidated in parallel with all the previous exercises. (A) advanced pre-flight preparation and post-flight responsibilities; (B) en route airmanship. (xxvii) Exercise 27: In-flight emergencies: (A) possible emergency scenarios: (a) pilot/passenger related, (b) aircraft related, (c) weather related, (d) flight related; (B) standard emergency procedures: (a) trim failure/runaway, (b) throttle/stick/pedal control failure, (c) system failure, (d) electrical/fuel fire, (e) emergency evacuation; (C) mitigation of a catastrophic failure; (D) emergency radio calls. (xxviii) Exercise 28: Precautionary landing: (A) selection of appropriate fields; (B) the technique for surveying suitable fields prior to landing. (xxix) Exercise 29: Forced landing: (A) restart procedure; (B) distress/urgency radio calls; (C) the technique for positioning prior to the approach at over 300 ft above ground level (AGL); (D) the technique for positioning in the final stages of the approach at less than 300 ft AGL. (xxx) Exercise 30: Forced landing around the airfield: (A) being prepared should the engine stop when flying in the circuit pattern; (B) being prepared prior to take-off. (xxxi) Exercise 31: Pre-solo check flight: (A) difference in flying characteristics; (B) checks to ensure that all prerequisites have been met. (xxxii) Exercise 32: First solo flight: (A) first solo flight; (B) instructor’s briefing, observation of flight and debriefing. (xxxiii) Exercise 33: Solo consolidation: (A) flying only in accordance with the instructor’s briefing; (B) making the decision to fly, including the decision-making process. (xxxiv) Exercise 34: En route navigation: (A) pre-flight navigation planning; (B) navigation technique – dead reckoning; (C) navigation technique – GNSS, if applicable; (D) simulated inadvertent entry into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC). (xxxv) Exercise 35: Landing out: (A) pre-flight planning for the destination aerodrome. (xxxvi) Exercise 36: Solo navigation (A) practice of navigation flights. (xxxvii) Exercise 37: Qualifying for cross-country flight: (A) planning and flying cross-country flights. (xxxviii) Exercise 38: Preparing for the [skill test](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/skill-test): (A) completing all the exercises and assessing competence before taking the skill test. AMC · AMC3 FCL.210 — Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 · Aircrew Easy Access Rules · EAR revision 25 Nov 2025 AMC Acceptable means of compliance ## AMC1 FCL.210(c) Training course CHANGE OF TRAINING ORGANISATION In cases where the [applicant](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/applicant) completes the training course (theoretical knowledge instruction or flight instruction) at a different DTO or ATO (‘completing training organisation’) from the one where they have started the training course (‘starting training organisation’), the applicant should request from the starting training organisation a copy of the records kept in accordance with point DTO.GEN.220 or point ORA.ATO.120 AMC · AMC1 FCL.210(c) — Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 · ED Decision 2018/009/R · Aircrew Easy Access Rules · EAR revision 25 Nov 2025 AMC Acceptable means of compliance ## AMC1 FCL.210; FCL.215 Training course and theoretical knowledge examination SYLLABUS OF THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PPL(A) AND PPL(H) The following tables contain the syllabi for the courses of theoretical knowledge, as well as for the theoretical knowledge examinations for the PPL(A) and PPL(H). The training and examination should cover aspects related to non-technical skills in an integrated manner, taking into account the particular risks associated to the licence and the activity. The DTO or the ATO responsible for the training should check if all the appropriate elements of the training course of theoretical knowledge instruction have been completed to a satisfactory standard before recommending the [applicant](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/applicant) for the examination. The applicable items for each licence are marked with ‘x’. An ‘x’ on the main title of a subject means that all the sub-divisions are applicable. | | | [Aeroplane](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/aeroplane) | | [Helicopter](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/helicopter) | | | ---- | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ----------------------------------------------------------- | ------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------- | | | | PPL | Bridge course | PPL | Bridge course | | 1. | AIR LAW AND ATC PROCEDURES | | | | | | | International law: conventions, agreements and organisations | | | | | | | The Convention on international civil aviation (Chicago) Doc. 7300/6 | | | | | | | Part I Air Navigation: relevant parts of the following chapters: (a) general principles and application of the convention; (b) flight over territory of Contracting States; (c) nationality of [aircraft](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/aircraft); (d) measures to facilitate air navigation; (e) conditions to be fulfilled on aircraft; (f) international standards and recommended practices; (g) validity of endorsed certificates and licences; (h) notification of differences. | x | | x | | | | Part II The International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO): objectives and composition | x | | x | | | | Annex 8: Airworthiness of aircraft | | | | | | | Foreword and definitions | x | | x | | | | Certificate of airworthiness | x | | x | | | | Annex 7: Aircraft nationality and registration marks | | | | | | | Foreword and definitions | x | | x | | | | Commonand registration marks | x | | x | | | | Certificate of registration and aircraft nationality | x | | x | | | | Annex 1: Personnel licensing | | | | | | | Definitions | x | | x | | | | Relevant parts of Annex 1 connected to Part-FCL and Part-Medical | x | | x | | | | Annex 2: Rules of the air | | | | | | | Essential definitions, applicability of the rules of the air, general rules (except water operations), visual flight rules, signals and interception of civil aircraft | x | | x | | | | Procedures for air navigation: aircraft operations doc. 8168-ops/611, volume 1 | | | | | | | Altimeter setting procedures (including IACO doc. 7030 – regional supplementary procedures) | | | | | | | Basic requirements (except tables), procedures applicable to operators and pilots (except tables) | x | | x | | | | Secondary surveillance radar transponder operating procedures (including ICAO Doc. 7030 – regional supplementary procedures) | | | | | | | Operation of transponders | x | | x | | | | Phraseology | x | | x | | | | Annex 11: Doc. 4444 air traffic management | | | | | | | Definitions | x | | x | | | | General provisions for air traffic services | x | | x | | | | Visual separation in the vicinity of aerodromes | x | | x | | | | Procedures for aerodrome control services | x | | x | | | | Radar services | x | | x | | | | Flight information service and alerting service | x | | x | | | | Phraseologies | x | | x | | | | Procedures related to emergencies, communication failure and contingencies | x | | x | | | | Annex 15: Aeronautical information service | | | | | | | Introduction, essential definitions | x | | x | | | | AIP, NOTAM, AIRAC and AIC | x | | x | | | | Annex 14, volume 1 and 2: Aerodromes | | | | | | | Definitions | x | | x | | | | Aerodrome data: conditions of the movement area and related facilities | x | | x | | | | Visual aids for navigation: (a) indicators and signalling devices; (b) markings; (c) lights; (d) signs; (e) markers. | x | | x | | | | Visual aids for denoting obstacles: (a) marking of objects; (b) lighting of objects. | x | | x | | | | Visual aids for denoting restricted use of areas | x | | x | | | | Emergency and other services: (a) rescue and fire fighting; (b) apron management service. | x | | x | | | | Annex 12: Search and rescue | | | | | | | Essential definitions | x | | x | | | | Operating procedures: (a) procedures for PIC at the scene of an accident; (b) procedures for PIC intercepting a distress transmission; (c) search and rescue signals. | x | | x | | | | Search and rescue signals: (a) signals with surface craft; (b) ground or air visual signal code; (c) air or ground signals. | x | | x | | | | Annex 17: Security | | | | | | | General: aims and objectives | x | | x | | | | Annex 13: Aircraft accident [investigation](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/investigation) | | | | | | | Essential definitions | x | | x | | | | Applicability | x | | x | | | | National law | | | | | | | National law and differences to relevant ICAO Annexes and relevant EU regulations. | x | | x | | | 2. | HUMAN PERFORMANCE | | | | | | | Human factors: basic concepts | | | | | | | Human factors in aviation | | | | | | | Becoming a competent pilot | x | | x | | | | Basic aviation physiology and health maintenance | | | | | | | The atmosphere: (a) composition; (b) gas laws. | x | | x | | | | Respiratory and circulatory systems: (a) oxygen requirement of tissues; (b) functional anatomy; (c) main forms of hypoxia (hypoxic and anaemic): (1) sources, effects and countermeasures of carbon monoxide; (2) counter measures and hypoxia; (3) symptoms of hypoxia. (d) hyperventilation; (e) the effects of accelerations on the circulatory system; (f) hypertension and coronary heart disease. | x | | x | | | | Man and environment | | | | | | | Central, peripheral and autonomic nervous systems | x | | x | | | | Vision: (a) functional anatomy; (b) visual field, foveal and peripheral vision; (c) binocular and monocular vision; (d) monocular vision cues; (e) [night](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/night) vision; (f) visual scanning and detection techniques and importance of ‘look-out’; (g) defective vision. | x | | x | | | | Hearing: (a) descriptive and functional anatomy; (b) flight related hazards to hearing; (c) hearing loss. | x | | x | | | | Equilibrium: (a) functional anatomy; (b) motion and acceleration; (c) motion sickness. | x | | x | | | | Integration of sensory inputs: (a) spatial disorientation: forms, recognition and avoidance; | x | | x | | | | (b) illusions: forms, recognition and avoidance: (1) physical origin; (2) physiological origin; (3) psychological origin. (c) approach and landing problems. | | | | | | | Health and hygiene | | | | | | | Personal hygiene: personal fitness | x | | x | | | | Body rhythm and sleep: (a) rhythm disturbances; (b) symptoms, effects and management. | x | | x | | | | Problem areas for pilots: (a) common minor ailments including cold, influenza and gastro-intestinal upset; (b) entrapped gases and barotrauma, (scuba diving); (c) obesity; (d) food hygiene; (e) infectious diseases; (f) nutrition; (g) various toxic gases and materials. | x | | x | | | | Intoxication: | x | | x | | | | (a) prescribed medication; (b) tobacco; (c) alcohol and drugs; (d) caffeine; (e) self-medication. | | | | | | | Basic aviation psychology | | | | | | | Human information processing | | | | | | | Attention and vigilance: (a) selectivity of attention; (b) divided attention. | x | | x | | | | Perception: (A) perceptual illusions; (B) subjectivity of perception; (C) processes of perception. | x | | x | | | | Memory: (a) sensory memory; (b) working or short term memory; (c) long term memory to include motor memory (skills). | x | | x | | | | Human [error](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/error) and reliability | | | | | | | Reliability of human behaviour | x | | x | | | | Error generation: social environment (group, organisation) | x | | x | | | | Decision making | | | | | | | Decision-making concepts: | x | | x | | | | (a) structure (phases); | | | | | | | (b) limits; (c) risk assessment; (d) practical application. | | | | | | | Avoiding and managing errors: cockpit management | | | | | | | Safety awareness: (a) risk area awareness; (b) situational awareness. | x | | x | | | | Communication: verbal and non-verbal communication | x | | x | | | | Human behaviour | | | | | | | Personality and attitudes: (a) development; (b) environmental influences. | x | | x | | | | Identification of hazardous attitudes (error proneness) | x | | x | | | | Human overload and underload | | | | | | | Arousal | x | | x | | | | Stress: (a) definition(s); (b) anxiety and stress; (c) effects of stress. | x | | x | | | | Fatigue and stress management: (a) types, causes and symptoms of fatigue; (b) effects of fatigue; (c) coping strategies; (d) management techniques; (e) health and fitness programmes; | x | | x | | | 3. | METEOROLOGY | | | | | | | The atmosphere | | | | | | | Composition, extent and vertical division | | | | | | | Structure of the atmosphere Troposphere | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | Air temperature | | | | | | | Definition and units Vertical distribution of temperature Transfer of heat Lapse rates, stability and instability Development of inversions and types of inversions | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | Temperature near the earth’s surface, surface effects, diurnal and seasonal variation, effect of clouds and effect of wind | x | | x | | | | Atmospheric pressure | | | | | | | Barometric pressure and isobars | x | | x | | | | Pressure variation with height Reduction of pressure to mean sea level Relationship between surface pressure centres and pressure centres aloft | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | Air density | | | | | | | Relationship between pressure, temperature and density | x | | x | | | | ISA | | | | | | | ICAO standard atmosphere | x | | x | | | | Altimetry | | | | | | | Terminology and definitions Altimeter and altimeter settings Calculations Effect of accelerated airflow due to topography | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | Wind | | | | | | | Definition and measurement of wind | | | | | | | Definition and measurement | x | | x | | | | Primary cause of wind | | | | | | | Primary cause of wind, pressure gradient, coriolis force and gradient wind | x | | x | | | | Variation of wind in the friction layer Effects of convergence and divergence | x | | x | | | | | x | | x | | | | General global circulation | | | | | | | General circulation around the globe | x | | x | | | | Local winds | | | | | | | Anabatic and katabatic winds, mountain and valley winds, Venturi effects, land and sea breezes | x | | x | | | | Mountain waves (standing waves, lee waves) | | | | | | | Origin and characteristics | x | | x | | | | Turbulence | | | | | | | Description and types of turbulence | x | | x | | | | Formation and location of turbulence | x | | x | | | | THERMODYNAMICS | | | | | | | Humidity | | | | | | | Water vapour in the atmosphere | x | | x | | | | Mixing ratio | x | | x | | | | Temperature/dew point, relative humidity | x | | x | | | | Change of state of aggregation | | | | | | | Condensation, evaporation, sublimation, freezing and melting, latent heat | x | | x | | | | Adiabatic processes | | | | | | | Adiabatic processes, stability of the atmosphere | x | | x | | | | CLOUDS AND FOG | | | | | | | Cloud formation and description | | | | | | | Cooling by adiabatic expansion and by advection | x | | x | | | | Cloud types and cloud classification | x | | x | | | | Influence of inversions on cloud development | x | | x | | | | Fog, mist, haze | | | | | | | General aspects | x | | x | | | | Radiation fog | x | | x | | | | Advection fog | x | | x | | | | Steaming fog | x | | x | | | | Frontal fog | x | | x | | | | Orographic fog (hill fog) | x | | x | | | | PRECIPITATION | | | | | | | Development of precipitation | | | | | | | Processes of development of precipitation | x | | x | | | | Types of precipitation | | | | | | | Types of precipitation, relationship with cloud types | x | | x | | | | AIR MASSES AND FRONTS | | | | | | | Air masses | | | | | | | Description, classification and source regions of air masses | x | | x | | | | Modifications of air masses | x | | x | | | | Fronts | | | | | | | General aspects | x | | x | | | | Warm front, associated clouds, and weather | x | | x | | | | Cold front, associated clouds, and weather | x | | x | | | | Warm sector, associated clouds, and weather | x | | x | | | | Weather behind the cold front | x | | x | | | | Occlusions, associated clouds, and weather | x | | x | | | | Stationary front, associated clouds, and weather | x | | x | | | | Movement of fronts and pressure systems, life cycle | x | | x | | | | Changes of meteorological elements at a frontal wave | x | | x | | | | PRESSURE SYSTEMS | | | | | | | Anticyclone | | | | | | | Anticyclones, types, general properties, cold and warm anticyclones, ridges and wedges, subsidence | x | | x | | | | Non-frontal depressions | | | | | | | Thermal, orographic and polar depressions, troughs | x | | x | | | | CLIMATOLOGY | | | | | | | Climatic zones | | | | | | | General seasonal circulation in the troposphere | x | | x | | | | Typical weather situations in the mid-latitudes | | | | | | | Westerly situation | x | | x | | | | High-pressure area | x | | x | | | | Flat-pressure pattern | x | | x | | | | Local winds and associated weather | | | | | | | e.g. Foehn | x | | x | | | | FLIGHT HAZARDS | | | | | | | Icing | | | | | | | Conditions for ice accretion | x | | x | | | | Types of ice accretion | x | | x | | | | Hazards of ice accretion, avoidance | x | | x | | | | Turbulence | | | | | | | Effects on flight, avoidance | x | | x | | | | Wind shear | | | | | | | Definition of wind shear | x | | x | | | | Weather conditions for wind shear | x | | x | | | | Effects on flight, avoidance | x | | x | | | | Thunderstorms | | | | | | | Conditions for, and process of, development, forecast, location, type specification | x | | x | | | | Structure of thunderstorms, life cycle, squall lines, electricity in the atmosphere, static charges | x | | x | | | | Electrical discharges | | | | | | | Development and effects of downbursts | x | | x | | | | Thunderstorm avoidance | x | | x | | | | Inversions | | | | | | | Influence on aircraft performance | x | | x | | | | Hazards in mountainous areas | | | | | | | Influence of terrain on clouds and precipitation, frontal passage | x | | x | | | | Vertical movements, mountain waves, wind shear, turbulence, ice accretion | x | | x | | | | Development and effect of valley inversions | x | | x | | | | Visibility-reducing phenomena | | | | | | | Reduction of visibility caused by precipitation and obscuration | x | | x | | | | Reduction of visibility caused by other phenomena | x | | x | | | | METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION | | | | | | | Observation | | | | | | | Surface observations | x | | x | | | | Radiosonde observations | x | | x | | | | Satellite observations | x | | x | | | | Weather radar observations | x | | x | | | | Aircraft observations and reporting | x | | x | | | | Weather charts | | | | | | | [Significant](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/significant) weather charts | x | | x | | | | Surface charts | x | | x | | | | Information for flight planning | | | | | | | Aviation weather messages | x | | x | | | | Meteorological broadcasts for aviation | x | | x | | | | Use of meteorological documents | x | | x | | | | Meteorological warnings | x | | x | | | | Meteorological services | | | | | | | World area forecast system (WAFS) and meteorological offices | x | | x | | | 4. | COMMUNICATIONS | | | | | | | VFR COMMUNICATIONS | | | | | | | Definitions | | | | | | | Meanings and significance of associated terms | x | | x | | | | ATS abbreviations | x | | x | | | | Q-code groups commonly used in RTF airground communications | x | | x | | | | Categories of messages | x | | x | | | | General operating procedures | | | | | | | Transmission of letters | x | | x | | | | Transmission of numbers (including level information) | x | | x | | | | Transmission of time | x | | x | | | | Transmission technique | x | | x | | | | Standard words and phrases (relevant RTF phraseology included) | x | | x | | | | R/T call signs for aeronautical stations including use of abbreviated call signs | x | | x | | | | R/T call signs for aircraft including use of abbreviated call signs | x | | x | | | | Transfer of communication | x | | x | | | | Test procedures including readability scale | x | | x | | | | Read back and acknowledgement requirements | x | | x | | | | Relevant weather information terms (VFR) | | | | | | | Aerodrome weather | x | | x | | | | Weather broadcast | x | | x | | | | Action required to be taken in case of communication failure | x | | x | | | | Distress and urgency procedures | | | | | | | Distress (definition, frequencies, watch of distress frequencies, distress signal and distress message) | x | | x | | | | Urgency (definition, frequencies, urgency signal and urgency message) | x | | x | | | | General principles of VHF propagation and allocation of frequencies | x | | x | | | 5. | PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT | | | | | | 5.1. | PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT: AEROPLANE | | | | | | | Subsonic aerodynamics | | | | | | | Basics concepts, laws and definitions | | | | | | | Laws and definitions: | x | x | | | | | (a) conversion of units; (b) Newton´s laws; (c) Bernoulli’s equation and venture; (d) static pressure, dynamic pressure and total pressure; (e) density; (f) IAS and TAS. | | | | | | | Basics about airflow: (a) streamline; (b) two-dimensional airflow; (c) three-dimensional airflow. | x | x | | | | | Aerodynamic forces on surfaces: (a) resulting airforce; (b) lift; (c) drag; (d) angle of attack. | x | x | | | | | Shape of an aerofoil section: (a) thickness to chord ratio; (b) chord line; (c) camber line; (d) camber; (e) angle of attack. | x | x | | | | | The wing shape: (a) aspect ratio; (b) root chord; (c) tip chord; (d) tapered wings; (e) wing planform. | x | x | | | | | The two-dimensional airflow about an aerofoil | | | | | | | Streamline pattern | x | x | | | | | Stagnation point | x | x | | | | | Pressure distribution | x | x | | | | | Centre of pressure | x | x | | | | | Influence of angle of attack | x | x | | | | | Flow separation at high angles of attack | x | x | | | | | The lift – α graph | x | x | | | | | The coefficients | | | | | | | The lift coefficient Cl: the lift formula | x | x | | | | | The drag coefficient Cd: the drag formula | x | x | | | | | The three-dimensional airflow round a wing and a fuselage | | | | | | | Streamline pattern: (a) span-wise flow and causes; (b) tip vortices and angle of attack; (c) upwash and downwash due to tip vortices; (d) wake turbulence behind an aeroplane (causes, distribution and duration of the phenomenon). | x | x | | | | | Induced drag: (a) influence of tip vortices on the angle of attack; (b) the induced local α; (c) influence of induced angle of attack on the direction of the lift vector; (d) induced drag and angle of attack. | x | x | | | | | Drag | | | | | | | The parasite drag: (a) pressure drag; (b) interference drag; (c) friction drag. | x | x | | | | | The parasite drag and speed | x | x | | | | | The induced drag and speed | x | x | | | | | The total drag | x | x | | | | | The ground effect | | | | | | | Effect on take off and landing characteristics of an aeroplane | x | x | | | | | The stall | | | | | | | Flow separation at increasing angles of attack: (a) the boundary layer: (1) laminar layer; (2) turbulent layer; (3) transition. (b) separation point; (c) influence of angle of attack; (d) influence on: (1) pressure distribution; (2) location of centre of pressure; (3) CL; (4) CD; (5) pitch moments. (e) buffet; (f) use of controls. | x | x | | | | | The stall speed: (a) in the lift formula; (b) 1g stall speed; (c) influence of: (1) the centre of gravity; (2) power setting; (3) altitude (IAS); (4) wing loading; (5) load factor n: (i) definition; (ii) turns; (iii) forces. | x | x | | | | | The initial stall in span-wise direction: (a) influence of planform; (b) geometric twist (wash out); (c) use of ailerons. | x | x | | | | | Stall warning: (a) importance of stall warning; (b) speed margin; (c) buffet; (d) stall strip; (e) flapper switch; (f) recovery from stall. | x | x | | | | | Special phenomena of stall: (a) the power-on stall; (b) climbing and descending turns; (c) t-tailed aeroplane; (d) avoidance of spins: (1) spin development; (2) spin recognition; (3) spin recovery. (e) ice (in stagnation point and on surface): (1) absence of stall warning; (2) abnormal behaviour of the aircraft during stall. | x | x | | | | | CL augmentation | | | | | | | Trailing edge flaps and the reasons for use in take-off and landing: (a) influence on CL - α-graph; (b) different types of flaps; (c) flap asymmetry; (d) influence on pitch movement. | x | x | | | | | Leading edge devices and the reasons for use in take-off and landing | x | x | | | | | The boundary layer | | | | | | | Different types: (a) laminar; (b) turbulent. | x | x | | | | | Special circumstances | | | | | | | Ice and other contamination: (a) ice in stagnation point; (b) ice on the surface (frost, snow and clear ice); (c) rain; (d) contamination of the leading edge; (e) effects on stall; (f) effects on loss of controllability; (g) effects on control surface moment; (h) influence on high lift devices during takeoff, landing and low speeds. | x | x | | | | | Stability | | | | | | | Condition of equilibrium in steady horizontal flight | | | | | | | Precondition for static stability | x | x | | | | | Equilibrium: (a) lift and weight; (b) drag and thrust. | x | x | | | | | Methods of achieving balance | | | | | | | Wing and empennage (tail and canard) | x | x | | | | | Control surfaces | x | x | | | | | Ballast or weight trim | x | x | | | | | Static and dynamic longitudinal stability | | | | | | | Basics and definitions: (a) static stability, positive, neutral and negative; (b) precondition for dynamic stability; (c) dynamic stability, positive, neutral and negative. | x | x | | | | | Location of centre of gravity: (a) aft limit and minimum stability margin; (b) forward position; (c) effects on static and dynamic stability. | x | x | | | | | Dynamic lateral or directional stability | | | | | | | Spiral dive and corrective actions | x | x | | | | | Control | | | | | | | General | | | | | | | Basics, the three planes and three axis | x | x | | | | | Angle of attack change | x | x | | | | | Pitch control | | | | | | | Elevator | x | x | | | | | Downwash effects | x | x | | | | | Location of centre of gravity | x | x | | | | | Yaw control | | | | | | | Pedal or rudder | x | x | | | | | Roll control | | | | | | | Ailerons: function in different phases of flight | x | x | | | | | Adverse yaw | x | x | | | | | Means to avoid adverse yaw: (a) frise ailerons; (b) differential ailerons deflection. | x | x | | | | | Means to reduce control forces | | | | | | | Aerodynamic balance: (a) balance tab and anti-balance tab; (b) servo tab. | x | x | | | | | Mass balance | | | | | | | Reasons to balance: means | x | x | | | | | Trimming | | | | | | | Reasons to trim | x | x | | | | | Trim tabs | x | x | | | | | Limitations | | | | | | | Operating limitations | | | | | | | Flutter | x | x | | | | | vfe | x | x | | | | | vno, vne | x | x | | | | | Manoeuvring envelope | | | | | | | Manoeuvring load diagram: (a) load factor; (b) accelerated stall speed; (c) va; (d) manoeuvring limit load factor or certification category. | x | x | | | | | Contribution of mass | x | x | | | | | Gust envelope | | | | | | | Gust load diagram | x | x | | | | | Factors contributing to gust loads | x | x | | | | | Propellers | | | | | | | Conversion of engine torque to thrust | | | | | | | Meaning of pitch | x | x | | | | | Blade twist | x | x | | | | | Effects of ice on propeller | x | x | | | | | Engine failure or engine stop | | | | | | | Windmilling drag | x | x | | | | | Moments due to propeller operation | | | | | | | Torque reaction | x | x | | | | | Asymmetric slipstream effect | x | x | | | | | Asymmetric blade effect | x | x | | | | | Flight mechanics | | | | | | | Forces acting on an aeroplane | | | | | | | Straight horizontal steady flight | x | x | | | | | Straight steady climb | x | x | | | | | Straight steady descent | x | x | | | | | Straight steady glide | x | x | | | | | Steady coordinated turn: (a) bank angle; (b) load factor; (c) turn radius; (d) rate one turn. | x | x | | | | 5.2. | PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT: HELICOPTER | | | | | | | Subsonic aerodynamics | | | | | | | Basic concepts, laws and definitions | | | x | x | | | Conversion of units | | | x | x | | | Definitions and basic concepts about air: | | | x | x | | | (a) the atmosphere and International Standard Atmosphere; (b) density; (c) influence of pressure and temperature on density. | | | | | | | Newton’s laws: (a) Newton’s second law: Momentum equation; (b) Newton’s third law: action and reaction. | | | x | x | | | Basic concepts about airflow: (a) steady airflow and unsteady airflow; (b) Bernoulli’s equation; (c) static pressure, dynamic pressure, total pressure and stagnation point; (d) TAS and IAS; (e) two-dimensional airflow and three-dimensional airflow; (f) viscosity and boundary layer. | | | x | x | | | Two-dimensional airflow | | | x | x | | | Aerofoil section geometry: (a) aerofoil section; (b) chord line, thickness and thickness to chord ratio of a section; (c) camber line and camber; (d) symmetrical and asymmetrical aerofoils sections. | | | x | x | | | Aerodynamic forces on aerofoil elements: (a) angle of attack; (b) pressure distribution; (c) lift and lift coefficient (d) relation lift coefficient: angle of attack; (e) profile drag and drag coefficient; (f) relation drag coefficient: angle of attack; (g) resulting force, centre of pressure and pitching moment. | | | x | x | | | Stall: (a) boundary layer and reasons for stalling; (b) variation of lift and drag as a function of angle of attack; (c) displacement of the centre of pressure and pitching moment. | | | x | x | | | Disturbances due to profile contamination: (a) ice contamination; (b) ice on the surface (frost, snow and clear ice). | | | x | x | | | The three-dimensional airflow round a wing and a fuselage | | | x | x | | | The wing: | | | x | x | | | (a) planform, rectangular and tapered wings; | | | | | | | (b) wing twist. | | | | | | | Airflow pattern and influence on lift: | | | x | x | | | (a) span wise flow on upper and lower surface; (b) tip vortices; (c) span-wise lift distribution. | | | | | | | Induced drag: causes and vortices | | | x | x | | | The airflow round a fuselage: (a) components of a fuselage; (b) parasite drag; (c) variation with speed. | | | x | x | | | Transonic aerodynamics and compressibility effects | | | | | | | Airflow velocities | | | x | x | | | Airflow speeds: (a) speed of sound; (b) subsonic, high subsonic and supersonic flows. | | | x | x | | | Shock waves: (a) compressibility and shock waves; (b) the reasons for their formation at upstream high subsonic airflow; (c) their effect on lift and drag. | | | x | x | | | Influence of wing planform: sweep-angle | | | x | x | | | [Rotorcraft](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/rotorcraft) types | | | x | x | | | Rotorcraft | | | x | x | | | Rotorcraft types: (a) autogyro; (b) helicopter. | | | x | x | | | Helicopters | | | x | x | | | Helicopters configurations: the single main rotor helicopter | | | x | x | | | The helicopter, characteristics and associated terminology: (a) general lay-out, fuselage, engine and gearbox; (b) tail rotor, fenestron and NOTAR; | | | x | x | | | (c) engines (reciprocating and turbo shaft engines); (d) power transmission; | | | | | | | (e) rotor shaft axis, rotor hub and rotor blades; (f) rotor disc and rotor disc area; (g) teetering rotor (two blades) and rotors with more than two blades; | | | | | | | (h) skids and wheels; (i) helicopter axes and fuselage centre line; | | | | | | | (j) roll axis, pitch axis and normal or yaw axis; (k) gross mass, gross weight and disc loading. | | | | | | | Main rotor aerodynamics | | | x | x | | | Hover flight outside ground effect | | | x | x | | | Airflow through the rotor discs and round the blades: (a) circumferential velocity of the blade sections; (b) induced airflow, through the disc and downstream; (c) downward fuselage drag; (d) equilibrium of rotor thrust, weight and fuselage drag; (e) rotor disc induced power; (f) relative airflow to the blade; (g) pitch angle and angle of attack of a blade section; (h) lift and profile drag on the blade element; (i) resulting lift and thrust on the blade and rotor thrust; (j) collective pitch angle changes and necessity of blade feathering; (k) required total main rotor-torque and rotor-power; (l) influence of the air density. | | | x | x | | | Anti-torque force and tail rotor: (a) force of tail rotor as a function of main rotor-torque; (b) anti-torque rotor power; (c) necessity of blade feathering of tail rotor blades and yaw pedals. | | | x | x | | | Maximum hover altitude OGE: (a) total power required and power available; (b) maximum hover altitude as a function of pressure altitude and OAT. | | | x | x | | | Vertical climb | | | x | x | | | Relative airflow and angles of attack: | | | x | x | | | (a) climb velocity VC, induced and relative velocity and angle of attack; (b) collective pitch angle and blade feathering. | | | | | | | Power and vertical speed: (a) induced power, climb power and profile power; | | | x | x | | | (b) total main rotor power and main rotor torque; | | | | | | | (c) tail rotor power; | | | | | | | (d) total power requirement in vertical flight. | | | | | | | Forward flight | | | x | x | | | Airflow and forces in uniform inflow distribution: (a) assumption of uniform inflow distribution on rotor disc; (b) advancing blade (90°) and retreating blade (270°); (c) airflow velocity relative to the blade sections, area of reverse flow; (d) lift on the advancing and retreating blades at constant pitch angles; (e) necessity of cyclic pitch changes; (f) compressibility effects on the advancing blade tip and speed limitations; (g) high angle of attack on the retreating blade, blade stall and speed limitations; (h) thrust on rotor disc and tilt of thrust vector; (i) vertical component of the thrust vector and gross weight equilibrium; (j) horizontal component of the thrust vector and drag equilibrium. | | | x | x | | | The flare (power flight): | | | x | x | | | (a) thrust reversal and increase in rotor thrust; (b) increase of rotor RPM on non governed rotor. | | | | | | | Power and maximum speed: (a) induced power as a function of helicopter speed; (b) rotor profile power as a function of helicopter speed; (c) fuselage drag and parasite power as a function of forward speed; (d) tail rotor power and power ancillary equipment; (e) total power requirement as a function of forward speed; (f) influence of helicopter mass, air density and drag of additional external equipment; | | | x | x | | | (g) translational lift and influence on power required. | | | | | | | Hover and forward flight in ground effect | | | x | x | | | Airflow in ground effect and downwash: rotor power decrease as a function of rotor height above the ground at constant helicopter mass | | | x | x | | | Vertical descent | | | x | x | | | Vertical descent, power on: | | | x | x | | | (a) airflow through the rotor, low and moderate descent speeds; (b) vortex ring state, settling with power and consequences. | | | | | | | Autorotation: (a) collective lever position after failure; (b) up flow through the rotor, auto-rotation and anti-autorotation rings; (c) tail rotor thrust and yaw control; (d) control of rotor RPM with collective lever; (e) landing after increase of rotor thrust by pulling collective and reduction in vertical speed. | | | x | x | | | Forward flight: Autorotation | | | x | x | | | Airflow through the rotor disc: (a) descent speed and up flow through the disc; (b) the flare, increase in rotor thrust, reduction of vertical speed and ground speed. | | | x | x | | | Flight and landing: | | | x | x | | | (a) turning; (b) flare; (c) autorotative landing; (d) height or velocity avoidance graph and dead man’s curve. | | | | | | | Main rotor mechanics | | | x | x | | | Flapping of the blade in hover | | | x | x | | | Forces and stresses on the blade: (a) centrifugal force on the blade and attachments; (b) limits of rotor RPM; (c) lift on the blade and bending stresses on a rigid attachment; (d) the flapping hinge of the articulated rotor and flapping hinge offset; (e) the flapping of the hinge less rotor and flexible element. | | | x | x | | | Coning angle in hover: | | | x | x | | | (a) lift and centrifugal force in hover and blade weight negligible (b) flapping, tip path plane and disc area. | | | | | | | Flapping angles of the blade in forward flight | | | x | x | | | Forces on the blade in forward flight without cyclic feathering: (a) aerodynamic forces on the advancing and retreating blades without cyclic feathering; (b) periodic forces and stresses, fatigue and flapping hinge; (c) phase lag between the force and the flapping angle (about 90°); (d) flapping motion of the hinged blades and tilting of the cone and flap back of rotor; (e) rotor disc attitude and thrust vector tilt. | | | x | x | | | Cyclic pitch (feathering) in helicopter mode, forward flight: (a) necessity of forward rotor disc tilt and thrust vector tilt; (b) flapping and tip path plane, virtual rotation axis or no flapping axis and plane of rotation; (c) shaft axis and hub plane; (d) cyclic pitch change (feathering) and rotor thrust vector tilt; (e) collective pitch change, collective lever, swash plate, pitch link and pitch horn; (f) cyclic stick, rotating swash plate and pitch link movement and phase angle. | | | x | x | | | Blade lag motion | | | x | x | | | Forces on the blade in the disc plane (tip path plane) in forward flight: (a) forces due to the Coriolis effect because of the flapping; (b) alternating stresses and the need of the drag or lag hinge. | | | x | x | | | The drag or lag hinge: (a) the drag hinge in the fully articulated rotor; (b) the lag flexure in the hinge less rotor; (c) drag dampers. | | | x | x | | | Ground resonance: (a) blade lag motion and movement of the centre of gravity of the blades and the rotor; (b) oscillating force on the fuselage; (c) fuselage, undercarriage and resonance. | | | x | x | | | Rotor systems | | | x | x | | | See-saw or teetering rotor | | | x | x | | | Fully articulated rotor: (a) three hinges arrangement; (b) bearings and elastomeric hinges. | | | x | x | | | Hinge less rotor and bearing less rotor | | | x | x | | | Blade sailing: (a) low rotor RPM and effect of adverse wind; (b) minimising the danger; | | | x | x | | | (c) droop stops. | | | | | | | Vibrations due to main rotor: (a) origins of the vibrations: in plane and vertical; (b) blade tracking and balancing. | | | x | x | | | Tail rotors | | | x | x | | | Conventional tail rotor | | | x | x | | | Rotor description: (a) two-blades tail rotors with teetering hinge; (b) rotors with more than two blades; (c) feathering bearings and flapping hinges; (d) dangers to people and to the tail rotor, rotor height and safety. | | | x | x | | | Aerodynamics: (a) induced airflow and tail rotor thrust; (b) thrust control by feathering, tail rotor drift and roll; (c) effect of tail rotor failure and vortex ring. | | | x | x | | | The fenestron: technical lay-out | | | x | x | | | The NOTAR: technical lay-out | | | x | x | | | Vibrations: high frequency vibrations due to the tail rotors | | | x | x | | | Equilibrium, stability and control | | | x | x | | | Equilibrium and helicopter attitudes | | | x | x | | | Hover: (a) forces and equilibrium conditions; (b) helicopter pitching moment and pitch angle; (c) helicopter rolling moment and roll angle. | | | x | x | | | Forward flight: (a) forces and equilibrium conditions; (b) helicopter moments and angles; (c) effect of speed on fuselage attitude. | | | x | x | | | Control | | | x | x | | | Control power | | | x | x | | | (a) fully articulated rotor; (b) hinge less rotor; (c) teetering rotor. | | | | | | | Static and dynamic roll over | | | x | x | | | Helicopter performances Engine performances | | | x | x | | | Piston engines: | | | x | x | | | (a) power available; (b) effects of density altitude. | | | | | | | Turbine engines: (a) power available; (b) effects of ambient pressure and temperature. | | | x | x | | | Helicopter performances | | | x | x | | | Hover and vertical flight: (a) power required and power available; (b) OGE and IGE maximum hover height; (c) influence of AUM, pressure, temperature and density. | | | x | x | | | Forward flight: (a) maximum speed; (b) maximum rate of climb speed; (c) maximum angle of climb speed; (d) range and endurance; (e) influence of AUM, pressure, temperature and density. | | | x | x | | | Manoeuvring: (a) load factor; (b) bank angle and number of g’s; (c) manoeuvring limit load factor. | | | x | x | | | Special conditions: (a) operating with limited power; (b) over pitch and over torque. | | | x | x | | 6. | OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES | | | | | | | General | | | | | | | Operation of aircraft: ICAO Annex 6, General requirements | | | | | | | Definitions | x | x | x | x | | | Applicability | x | x | x | x | | | Special operational procedures and hazards (general aspects) | x | x | x | x | | | Noise abatement | | | | | | | Noise abatement procedures | x | x | x | x | | | Influence of the flight procedure (departure, cruise and approach) | x | x | x | x | | | Runway incursion awareness (meaning of surface markings and signals) | x | x | x | x | | | Fire or smoke | | | | | | | Carburettor fire | x | x | x | x | | | Engine fire | x | x | x | x | | | Fire in the cabin and cockpit, (choice of extinguishing agents according to fire classification and use of the extinguishers) | x | x | x | x | | | Smoke in the cockpit and (effects and action to be taken) and smoke in the cockpit and cabin (effects and actions taken) | x | x | x | x | | | Windshear and microburst | | | | | | | Effects and recognition during departure and approach | x | x | x | x | | | Actions to avoid and actions taken during encounter | x | x | x | x | | | Wake turbulence | | | | | | | Cause | x | x | x | x | | | List of relevant parameters | x | x | x | x | | | Actions taken when crossing traffic, during take-off and landing | x | x | x | x | | | Emergency and precautionary landings | | | | | | | Definition | x | x | x | x | | | Cause | x | x | x | x | | | Passenger information | x | x | x | x | | | Evacuation | x | x | x | x | | | Action after landing | x | x | x | x | | | Contaminated runways | | | | | | | Kinds of contamination | x | x | | | | | Estimated surface friction and friction coefficient | x | x | | | | | Rotor downwash | | | x | x | | | Operation influence by meteorological conditions (helicopter) | | | | | | | White out, sand or dust | | | x | x | | | Strong winds | | | x | x | | | Mountain environment | | | x | x | | | Emergency procedures | | | | | | | Influence by technical problems | | | | | | | Engine failure | | | x | x | | | Fire in cabin, cockpit or engine | | | x | x | | | Tail, rotor or directional control failure | | | x | x | | | Ground resonance | | | x | x | | | Blade stall | | | x | x | | | Settling with power (vortex ring) | | | x | x | | | Overpitch | | | x | x | | | Overspeed: rotor or engine | | | x | x | | | Dynamic rollover | | | x | x | | | Mast bumping | | | x | x | | 7. | FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND PLANNING | | | | | | 7.1. | MASS AND BALANCE: AEROPLANES OR HELICOPTERS | | | | | | | Purpose of mass and balance considerations | | | | | | | Mass limitations | | | | | | | Importance in regard to structural limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Importance in regard to performance limitations | x | x | x | x | | | CG limitations | | | | | | | Importance in regard to stability and controllability | x | x | x | x | | | Importance in regard to performance | x | x | x | x | | | Loading | | | | | | | Terminology | | | | | | | Mass terms | x | x | x | x | | | Load terms (including fuel terms) | x | x | x | x | | | Mass limits | | | | | | | Structural limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Performance limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Baggage compartment limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Mass calculations | | | | | | | Maximum masses for take-off and landing | x | x | x | x | | | Use of standard masses for passengers, baggage and crew | x | x | x | x | | | Fundamentals of CG calculations | | | | | | | Definition of centre of gravity | x | x | x | x | | | Conditions of equilibrium (balance of forces and balance of moments) | x | x | x | x | | | Basic calculations of CG | x | x | x | x | | | Mass and balance details of aircraft | | | | | | | Contents of mass and balance documentation | | | | | | | Datum and moment arm | x | x | x | x | | | CG position as distance from datum | x | x | x | x | | | Extraction of basic mass and balance data from aircraft documentation | | | | | | | BEM | x | x | x | x | | | CG position or moment at BEM | x | x | x | x | | | Deviations from standard configuration | x | x | x | x | | | Determination of CG position | | | | | | | Methods | | | | | | | Arithmetic method | x | x | x | x | | | Graphic method | x | x | x | x | | | Load and trim sheet | | | | | | | General considerations | x | x | x | x | | | Load sheet and CG envelope for light aeroplanes and for helicopters | x | x | x | x | | 7.2. | PERFORMANCE: AEROPLANES | | | | | | | Introduction | | | | | | | Performance classes | x | x | | | | | Stages of flight | x | x | | | | | Effect of aeroplane mass, wind, altitude, runway slope and runway conditions | x | x | | | | | Gradients | x | x | | | | | SE aeroplanes | | | | | | | Definitions of terms and speeds | x | x | | | | | Take-off and landing performance | | | | | | | Use of aeroplane flight manual data | x | x | | | | | Climb and cruise performance | | | | | | | Use of aeroplane flight data | x | x | | | | | Effect of density altitude and aeroplane mass | x | x | | | | | Endurance and the effects of the different recommended power or thrust settings | x | x | | | | | Still air range with various power or thrust settings | x | x | | | | 7.3. | FLIGHT PLANNING AND FLIGHT MONITORING | | | | | | | Flight planning for VFR flights | | | | | | | VFR navigation plan | | | | | | | Routes, airfields, heights and altitudes from VFR charts | x | x | x | x | | | Courses and distances from VFR charts | x | x | x | x | | | Aerodrome charts and aerodrome directory | x | x | x | x | | | Communications and radio navigation planning data | x | x | x | x | | | Completion of navigation plan | x | x | x | x | | | Fuel planning | | | | | | | General knowledge | x | x | x | x | | | Pre-flight calculation of fuel required | | | | | | | Calculation of extra fuel | x | x | x | x | | | Completion of the fuel section of the navigation plan (fuel log) and calculation of total fuel | x | x | x | x | | | Pre-flight preparation | | | | | | | AIP and NOTAM briefing | | | | | | | Ground facilities and services | x | x | x | x | | | Departure, destination and alternate aerodromes | x | x | x | x | | | Airway routings and airspace structure | x | x | x | x | | | Meteorological briefing | | | | | | | Extraction and analysis of relevant data from meteorological documents | x | x | x | x | | | ICAO flight plan (ATS flight plan) | | | | | | | Individual flight plan | | | | | | | Format of flight plan | x | x | x | x | | | Completion of the flight plan | x | x | x | x | | | Submission of the flight plan | x | x | x | x | | | Flight monitoring and in-flight replanning | | | | | | | Flight monitoring | | | | | | | Monitoring of track and time | x | x | x | x | | | In-flight fuel management | x | x | x | x | | | In-flight re-planning in case of deviation from planned data | x | x | x | x | | 7.4. | PERFORMANCE: HELICOPTERS | | | | | | | General | | | | | | | Introduction | | | | | | | Stages of flight | | | x | x | | | Effect on performance of atmospheric, airport or heliport and helicopter conditions | | | x | x | | | Applicability of airworthiness requirements | | | x | x | | | Definitions and terminology | | | x | x | | | Performance: SE helicopters | | | | | | | Definitions of terms (a) masses; (b) velocities: vx, vy; | | | x | x | | | (c) velocity of best range and of maximum endurance; (d) power limitations; (e) altitudes. | | | | | | | Take-off, cruise and landing performance Use and interpretation of diagrams and tables: (a) Take-off: (1) take-off run and distance available; (2) take-off and initial climb; (3) effects of mass, wind and density altitude; (4) effects of ground surface and gradient. (b) Landing: (1) effects of mass, wind, density altitude and approach speed; (2) effects of ground surface and gradient. (c) In-flight: (1) relationship between power required and power available; (2) performance diagram; (3) effects of configuration, mass, temperature and altitude; (4) reduction of performance during climbing turns; (5) autorotation; (6) adverse effects (icing, rain and condition of the airframe). | | | x | x | | 8. | AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE | | | | | | 8.1. | AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS, ELECTRICS, POWERPLANT AND EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT | | | | | | | System design, loads, stresses, maintenance | | | | | | | Loads and combination loadings applied to an aircraft’s structure | x | x | x | x | | | Airframe | | | | | | | Wings, tail surfaces and control surfaces | | | | | | | Design and constructions | x | x | | | | | Structural components and materials | x | x | | | | | Stresses | x | x | | | | | Structural limitations | x | x | | | | | Fuselage, doors, floor, wind-screen and windows | | | | | | | Design and constructions | x | x | x | x | | | Structural components and materials | x | x | x | x | | | Stresses | x | x | x | x | | | Structural limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Flight and control surfaces | | | | | | | Design and constructions | | | x | x | | | Structural components and materials | | | x | x | | | Stresses and aero elastic vibrations | | | x | x | | | Structural limitations | | | x | x | | | Hydraulics | | | | | | | Hydromechanics: basic principles | x | x | x | x | | | Hydraulic systems | x | x | x | x | | | Hydraulic fluids: types and characteristics, limitations | x | x | x | x | | | System components: design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | x | x | | | Landing gear, wheels, tyres and brakes | | | | | | | Landing gear | | | | | | | Types and materials | x | x | x | x | | | Nose wheel steering: design and operation | x | x | | | | | Brakes | | | | | | | Types and materials | x | x | x | x | | | System components: design, operation, indications and warnings | x | x | x | x | | | Wheels and tyres | | | | | | | Types and operational limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Helicopter equipments | | | x | x | | | Flight controls | | | | | | | Mechanical or powered | x | x | x | x | | | Control systems and mechanical | x | x | x | x | | | System components: design, operation, indications and warnings, degraded modes of operation and jamming | x | x | x | x | | | Secondary flight controls | | | | | | | System components: design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | | | | | Anti-icing systems | | | | | | | Types and operation (pitot and windshield) | x | x | x | x | | | Fuel system | | | | | | | Piston engine | | | | | | | System components: design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | x | x | | | Turbine engine | | | | | | | System components: design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | | | x | x | | | Electrics | | | | | | | Electrics: general and definitions | | | | | | | Direct current: voltage, current, resistance, conductivity, Ohm’s law, power and work | x | x | x | x | | | Alternating current: voltage, current, amplitude, phase, frequency and resistance | x | x | x | x | | | Circuits: series and parallel | x | x | x | x | | | Magnetic field: effects in an electrical circuit | x | x | x | x | | | Batteries | | | | | | | Types, characteristics and limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Battery chargers, characteristics and limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Static electricity: general | | | | | | | Basic principles | x | x | x | x | | | Static dischargers | x | x | x | x | | | Protection against interference | x | x | x | x | | | Lightning effects | x | x | x | x | | | Generation: production, distribution and use | | | | | | | DC generation: types, design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | x | x | | | AC generation: types, design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | x | x | | | Electric components | | | | | | | Basic elements: basic principles of switches, circuit-breakers and relays | x | x | x | x | | | Distribution | | | | | | | General: (a) bus bar, common earth and priority; (b) AC and DC comparison. | x | x | x | x | | | Piston engines | | | | | | | General | | | | | | | Types of internal combustion engine: basic principles and definitions | x | x | x | x | | | Engine: design, operation, components and materials | x | x | x | x | | | Fuel | | | | | | | Types, grades, characteristics and limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Alternate fuel: characteristics and limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Carburettor or injection system | | | | | | | Carburettor: design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | x | x | | | Injection: design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | x | x | | | Icing | x | x | x | x | | | Air cooling systems | | | | | | | Design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | x | x | | | Lubrication systems | | | | | | | Lubricants: types, characteristics and limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Design, operation, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | x | x | | | Ignition circuits | | | | | | | Design, operation, degraded modes of operation | x | x | x | x | | | Mixture | | | | | | | Definition, characteristic mixtures, control instruments, associated control levers and indications | x | x | x | x | | | Propellers | | | | | | | Definitions and general: (a) aerodynamic parameters; (b) types; (c) operating modes. | x | x | | | | | Constant speed propeller: design, operation and system components | x | x | | | | | Propeller handling: associated control levers, degraded modes of operation, indications and warnings | x | x | | | | | Performance and engine handling | | | | | | | Performance: influence of engine parameters, influence of atmospheric conditions, limitations and power augmentation systems | x | x | x | x | | | Engine handling: power and mixture settings during various flight phases and operational limitations | x | x | x | x | | | Turbine engines | | | | | | | Definitions | | | x | x | | | Coupled turbine engine: design, operation, components and materials | | | x | x | | | Free turbine engine: design, operation, components and materials | | | x | x | | | Fuel | | | | | | | Types, characteristics and limitations | | | x | x | | | Main engine components | | | | | | | Compressor: (a) types, design, operation, components and materials; (b) stresses and limitations; (c) stall, surge and means of prevention. | | | x | x | | | Combustion chamber: (a) types, design, operation, components and materials; (b) stresses and limitations; (c) emission problems. | | | x | x | | | Turbine: (a) types, design, operation, components and materials; (b) stresses, creep and limitations. | | | x | x | | | Exhaust: (a) design, operation and materials; (b) noise reduction. | | | x | x | | | Fuel control units: types, operation and sensors | | | x | x | | | Helicopter air intake: different types, design, operation, materials and optional equipments | | | x | x | | | Additional components and systems | | | | | | | Helicopter additional components and systems: lubrication system, ignition circuit, starter, accessory gearbox, free wheel units: design, operation and components | | | x | x | | | Performance aspects | | | | | | | Torque, performance aspects, engine handling and limitations: (a) engine ratings; (b) engine performance and limitations; (c) engine handling. | | | x | x | | | Protection and detection systems | | | | | | | Fire detection systems | | | | | | | Operation and indications | | | x | X | | | Miscellaneous systems | | | | | | | Rotor design | | | x | x | | | Rotor heads | | | | | | | Main rotor | | | | | | | Types | | | x | x | | | Structural components and materials, stresses and structural limitations | | | x | x | | | Design and construction | | | x | x | | | Adjustment | | | x | x | | | Tail rotor | | | | | | | Types | | | x | x | | | Structural components and materials, stresses and structural limitations | | | x | x | | | Design and construction | | | x | x | | | Adjustment | | | x | x | | | Transmission | | | | | | | Main gear box | | | | | | | Different types, design, operation and limitations | | | x | x | | | Rotor brake | | | | | | | Different types, design, operation and limitations | | | x | x | | | Auxiliary systems | | | x | x | | | Drive shaft and associated installation | | | x | x | | | Intermediate and tail gear box | | | | | | | Different types, design, operation and limitations | | | x | x | | | Blades | | | | | | | Main rotor blade | | | | | | | Design and construction | | | x | x | | | Structural components and materials | | | x | x | | | Stresses | | | x | x | | | Structural limitations | | | x | x | | | Adjustment | | | x | x | | | Tip shape | | | x | x | | | Tail rotor blade | | | | | | | Design and construction | | | x | x | | | Structural components and materials | | | x | x | | | Stresses | | | x | x | | | Structural limitations | | | x | x | | | Adjustment | | | x | x | | 8.2. | INSTRUMENTATION | | | | | | | Instrument and indication systems | | | | | | | Pressure gauge | | | | | | | Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Temperature sensing | | | | | | | Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Fuel gauge | | | | | | | Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Flow meter | | | | | | | Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Position transmitter | | | | | | | Different types, design, operation, characteristics and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Torque meter | | | | | | | Design, operation, characteristics and accuracy | | | x | x | | | Tachometer | | | | | | | Design, operation, characteristics and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Measurement of aerodynamic parameters | | | | | | | Pressure measurement | | | | | | | Static pressure, dynamic pressure, density and definitions | x | x | x | x | | | Design, operation, errors and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Temperature measurement: aeroplane | | | | | | | Design, operation, errors and accuracy | x | x | | | | | Displays | x | x | | | | | Temperature measurement: helicopter | | | | | | | Design, operation, errors and accuracy | | | x | x | | | Displays | | | x | x | | | Altimeter | | | | | | | Standard atmosphere | x | x | x | x | | | The different barometric references (QNH, QFE and 1013.25) | x | x | x | x | | | Height, indicated altitude, true altitude, pressure altitude and density altitude | x | x | x | x | | | Design, operation, errors and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Displays | x | x | x | x | | | Vertical speed indicator | | | | | | | Design, operation, errors and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Displays | x | x | x | x | | | Air speed indicator | | | | | | | The different speeds IAS, CAS, TAS: definition, usage and relationships | x | x | x | x | | | Design, operation, errors and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Displays | x | x | x | x | | | Magnetism: direct reading compass | | | | | | | Earth magnetic field | x | x | x | x | | | Direct reading compass | | | | | | | Design, operation, data processing, accuracy and deviation | x | x | x | x | | | Turning and acceleration errors | x | x | x | x | | | Gyroscopic instruments | | | | | | | Gyroscope: basic principles | | | | | | | Definitions and design | x | x | x | x | | | Fundamental properties | x | x | x | x | | | Drifts | x | x | x | x | | | Turn and bank indicator | | | | | | | Design, operation and errors | x | x | x | x | | | Attitude indicator | | | | | | | Design, operation, errors and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Directional gyroscope | | | | | | | Design, operation, errors and accuracy | x | x | x | x | | | Communication systems | | | | | | | Transmission modes: VHF, HF and SATCOM | | | | | | | Principles, bandwidth, operational limitations and use | x | x | x | x | | | Voice communication | | | | | | | Definitions, general and applications | x | x | x | x | | | Alerting systems and proximity systems | | | | | | | Flight warning systems | | | | | | | Design, operation, indications and alarms | x | x | x | x | | | Stall warning | | | | | | | Design, operation, indications and alarms | x | x | | | | | Radio-altimeter | | | | | | | Design, operation, errors, accuracy and indications | | | x | x | | | Rotor or engine over speed alert system | | | | | | | Design, operation, displays and alarms | | | x | x | | | Integrated instruments: electronic displays | | | | | | | Display units | | | | | | | Design, different technologies and limitations | x | x | x | x | | 9. | NAVIGATION | | | | | | 9.1. | GENERAL NAVIGATION | | | | | | | Basics of navigation | | | | | | | The solar system | | | | | | | Seasonal and apparent movements of the sun | x | | x | | | | The earth | | | | | | | Great circle, small circle and rhumb line | x | | x | | | | Latitude and difference of latitude | x | | x | | | | Longitude and difference of longitude | x | | x | | | | Use of latitude and longitude co-ordinates to locate any specific position | x | | x | | | | Time and time conversions | | | | | | | Apparent time | x | | x | | | | UTC | x | | x | | | | LMT | x | | x | | | | Standard times | x | | x | | | | Dateline | x | | x | | | | Definition of sunrise, sunset and civil twilight | x | | x | | | | Directions | | | | | | | True north, magnetic north and compass north | x | | x | | | | Compass deviation | x | | x | | | | Magnetic poles, isogonals, relationship between true and magnetic | x | | x | | | | Distance | | | | | | | Units of distance and height used in navigation: nautical miles, statute miles, kilometres, metres and ft | x | | x | | | | Conversion from one unit to another | x | | x | | | | Relationship between nautical miles and minutes of latitude and minutes of longitude | x | | x | | | | Magnetism and compasses | | | | | | | General principles | | | | | | | Terrestrial magnetism | x | | x | | | | Resolution of the earth’s total magnetic force into vertical and horizontal components | x | | x | | | | Variation-annual change | x | | x | | | | Aircraft magnetism | | | | | | | The resulting magnetic fields | x | | x | | | | Keeping magnetic materials clear of the compass | x | | x | | | | Charts | | | | | | | General properties of miscellaneous types of projections | | | | | | | Direct Mercator | x | | x | | | | Lambert conformal conic | x | | x | | | | The representation of meridians, parallels, great circles and rhumb lines | | | | | | | Direct Mercator | x | | x | | | | Lambert conformal conic | x | | x | | | | The use of current aeronautical charts | | | | | | | Plotting positions | x | | x | | | | Methods of indicating scale and relief (ICAO topographical chart) | x | | x | | | | Conventional signs | x | | x | | | | Measuring tracks and distances | x | | x | | | | Plotting bearings and distances | x | | x | | | | DR navigation | | | | | | | Basis of DR | | | | | | | Track | x | | x | | | | Heading (compass, magnetic and true) | x | | x | | | | Wind velocity | x | | x | | | | Air speed (IAS, CAS and TAS) | x | | x | | | | Groundspeed | x | | x | | | | ETA | x | | x | | | | Drift and wind correction angle | x | | x | | | | DR position fix | x | | x | | | | Use of the navigational computer | | | | | | | Speed | x | | x | | | | Time | x | | x | | | | Distance | x | | x | | | | Fuel consumption | x | | x | | | | Conversions | x | | x | | | | Air speed | x | | x | | | | Wind velocity | x | | x | | | | True altitude | x | | x | | | | The triangle of velocities | | | | | | | Heading | x | | x | | | | Ground speed | x | | x | | | | Wind velocity | x | | x | | | | Track and drift angle | x | | x | | | | Measurement of DR elements | | | | | | | Calculation of altitude | x | | x | | | | Determination of appropriate speed | x | | x | | | | In-flight navigation | | | | | | | Use of visual observations and application to in-flight navigation | x | | x | | | | Navigation in cruising flight, use of fixes to revise navigation data | | | | | | | Ground speed revision | x | | x | | | | Off-track corrections | x | | x | | | | Calculation of wind speed and direction | x | | x | | | | ETA revisions | x | | x | | | | Flight log | x | | x | | | 9.2. | RADIO NAVIGATION | | | | | | | Basic radio propagation theory | | | | | | | Antennas | | | | | | | Characteristics | x | | x | | | | Wave propagation | | | | | | | Propagation with the frequency bands | x | | x | | | | Radio aids | | | | | | | Ground DF | | | | | | | Principles | x | | x | | | | Presentation and interpretation | x | | x | | | | Coverage | x | | x | | | | Range | x | | x | | | | Errors and accuracy | x | | x | | | | Factors affecting range and accuracy | x | | x | | | | NDB/ADF | | | | | | | Principles | x | | x | | | | Presentation and interpretation | x | | x | | | | Coverage | x | | x | | | | Range | x | | x | | | | Errors and accuracy | x | | x | | | | Factors affecting range and accuracy | x | | x | | | | VOR | | | | | | | Principles | x | | x | | | | Presentation and interpretation | x | | x | | | | Coverage | x | | x | | | | Range | x | | x | | | | Errors and accuracy | x | | x | | | | Factors affecting range and accuracy | x | | x | | | | DME | | | | | | | Principles | x | | x | | | | Presentation and interpretation | x | | x | | | | Coverage | x | | x | | | | Range | x | | x | | | | Errors and accuracy | x | | x | | | | Factors affecting range and accuracy | x | | x | | | | Radar | | | | | | | Ground radar | | | | | | | Principles | x | | x | | | | Presentation and interpretation | x | | x | | | | Coverage | x | | x | | | | Range | x | | x | | | | Errors and accuracy | x | | x | | | | Factors affecting range and accuracy | x | | x | | | | Secondary surveillance radar and transponder | | | | | | | Principles | x | | x | | | | Presentation and interpretation | x | | x | | | | Modes and codes | x | | x | | | | GNSS | | | | | | | GPS, GLONASS OR GALILEO | | | | | | | Principles | x | | x | | | | Operation | x | | x | | | | Errors and accuracy | x | | x | | | | Factors affecting accuracy | x | | x | | AMC · AMC1 FCL.210 — Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 · ED Decision 2020/005/R · Aircrew Easy Access Rules · EAR revision 25 Nov 2025 AMC Acceptable means of compliance ## AMC2 FCL.210; FCL.215 SYLLABUS OF THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE PPL(AS) The following table contains the syllabi for the courses of theoretical knowledge, as well as for the theoretical knowledge examinations for the PPL(As). The training and examination should cover aspects related to non-technical skills in an integrated manner, taking into account the particular risks associated to the licence and the activity. | | | PPL | | -- | -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | --- | | 1. | AIR LAW AND ATC PROCEDURES | | | | International law: conventions, agreements and organisations | x | | | Airworthiness of [aircraft](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/aircraft) | x | | | Aircraft nationality and registration marks | x | | | Personnel licensing | x | | | Rules of the air | x | | | Procedures for air navigation services: aircraft operations | x | | | Air traffic services and air traffic management | x | | | Aeronautical information service | x | | | Aerodromes | x | | | Search and rescue | x | | | Security | x | | | Aircraft accident and incident [investigation](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/investigation) | x | | | National law | x | | | | PPL | | -- | ------------------------------------------------ | --- | | 2. | HUMAN PERFORMANCE | | | | Human factors: basic concepts | x | | | Basic aviation physiology and health maintenance | x | | | Basic aviation psychology | x | | | | PPL | | -- | -------------------------- | --- | | 3. | METEOROLOGY | | | | The atmosphere | x | | | Wind | x | | | Thermodynamics | x | | | Clouds and fog | x | | | Precipitation | x | | | Air masses and fronts | x | | | Pressure systems | x | | | Climatology | x | | | Flight hazards | x | | | Meteorological information | x | | | | PPL | | -- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | --- | | 4. | COMMUNICATIONS | | | | VFR COMMUNICATIONS | | | | Definitions | x | | | General operating procedures | x | | | Relevant weather information terms (VFR) | x | | | Action required to be taken in case of communication failure | x | | | Distress and urgency procedures | x | | | General principles of VHF propagation and allocation of frequencies | x | | | | PPL | | 5. | PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT | | | | Basics of aerostatics | x | | | Basics of subsonic aerodynamics | x | | | Aerodynamics of airships | x | | | Stability | x | | | Controllability | x | | | Limitations | x | | | Propellers | x | | | Basics of [airship](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/airship) flight mechanics | x | | | | PPL | | -- | ------------------------------------------------------------ | --- | | 6. | OPERATIONAL PROCEDURES | | | | General requirements | x | | | Special operational procedures and hazards (general aspects) | x | | | Emergency procedures | x | | | | PPL | | --- | ------------------------------------------- | --- | | 7. | FLIGHT PERFORMANCE AND PLANNING | | | 7.1 | MASS AND BALANCE | | | | Purpose of mass and balance considerations | x | | | Loading | x | | | Fundamentals of CG calculations | x | | | Mass and balance details of aircraft | x | | | Determination of CG position | x | | | Passenger, cargo and ballast handling | x | | 7.2 | PERFORMANCE | | | | Airworthiness requirements | x | | | Basics of airship performance | x | | | Definitions and terms | x | | | Stages of flight | x | | | Use of flight manual | x | | 7.3 | FLIGHT PLANNING AND FLIGHT MONITORING | | | | Flight planning for VFR flights | x | | | Fuel planning | x | | | Pre-flight preparation | x | | | ATS flight plan | x | | | Flight monitoring and in-flight re-planning | x | | | | PPL | | --- | ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- | --- | | 8. | AIRCRAFT GENERAL KNOWLEDGE | | | 8.1 | ENVELOPE, AIRFRAME AND SYSTEMS, ELECTRICS, POWERPLANT AND EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT | | | | Design, materials, loads and stresses | x | | | Envelope and airbags | x | | | Framework | x | | | Gondola | x | | | Flight controls | x | | | Landing gear | x | | | Hydraulics and pneumatics | x | | | Heating and air conditioning | x | | | Fuel system | x | | | Piston engines (propellers) | x | | | Turbine engines (basics) | x | | | Electrics | x | | | Fire protection and detection systems | x | | | Maintenance | x | | 8.2 | INSTRUMENTATION | | | | Sensors and instruments | x | | | Measurement of air data and gas parameters | x | | | Magnetism: direct reading compass and flux valve | x | | | Gyroscopic instruments | x | | | Communication systems | x | | | Alerting systems | x | | | Integrated instruments: electronic displays | x | | | Flight management system (general basics) | x | | | Digital circuits and computers | x | | | | PPL | | ---- | ------------------------------ | --- | | 9. | NAVIGATION | | | 9.1. | GENERAL NAVIGATION | | | | Basics of navigation | x | | | Magnetism and compasses | x | | | Charts | x | | | DR navigation | x | | | In-flight navigation | x | | 9.2. | RADIO NAVIGATION | | | | Basic radio propagation theory | x | | | Radio aids | x | | | Radar | x | | | GNSS | x | AMC · AMC2 FCL.210 — Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 · ED Decision 2011/016/R · Aircrew Easy Access Rules · EAR revision 25 Nov 2025 AMC Acceptable means of compliance ## AMC4 FCL.210; FCL.215 Training course and theoretical knowledge examination SYLLABUS OF THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE FOR THE [GYROPLANE](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/gyroplane) PILOT LICENCE The following tables contain the syllabi for the theoretical knowledge segment of the training course and for the theoretical knowledge examinations for the GPL. The training and examination should cover aspects related to non-technical skills in an integrated manner, taking into account the particular risks associated with the licence and the activity. The DTO or ATO responsible for the training should check whether all the appropriate elements of theoretical knowledge instruction in the training course have been completed to a satisfactory standard before recommending that the [applicant](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/applicant) take the examination. The table below indicates where the subjects and examinations are identical to PPL(A) or PPL(H). Entries marked with an ‘X’ indicate that the exam specified in AMC1 FCL.210; FCL.215 should be used. | | | PPL(A) | PPL(H) | | -- | --------------------------------------------------------------------------- | --------- | --------- | | 1. | Air law and ATC procedures | X | X | | 2. | Human performance | X | X | | 3. | Meteorology | X | X | | 4. | Communications | X | X | | 5. | Principles of flight | See below | See below | | 6. | Operational procedures | See below | See below | | 7. | Flight performance and planning | See below | See below | | 8. | [Aircraft](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/aircraft) general knowledge | See below | See below | | 9. | Navigation | X | X | | 5. | Principles of flight – gyroplanes | GPL | | | ----- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | --- | - | | 5.1. | Forces acting on a gyroplane | | | | | Weight, lift, thrust and drag | X | | | | Centre of gravity (CG) | X | | | | Mass, gravitational force and weight | X | | | | Blade loading and disc loading | X | | | 5.2. | Aerofoils / rotor blades | | | | | Aerofoil lift, the Bernoulli principle, boundary layers and streamline flow | X | | | | Turbulent flow, separation points and aerofoil stalls | X | | | | Dynamic pressure | X | | | | Density of the air | X | | | | Relative airflow and chord lines | X | | | | Angle of attack, total reaction, lift and drag | X | | | | Aerofoil shapes | X | | | | Centre of pressure | X | | | | Coefficient of lift versus angle of attack | X | | | 5.3. | Drag | | | | | Fuselage drag – air resistance | X | | | | Induced drag | X | | | | Parasite drag, profile drag, form, skin friction and interference | X | | | | Span, chord and aspect ratio | X | | | | Total drag (graph) | X | | | | Lift–drag ratio | X | | | 5.4. | Propellers | | | | | Airflow and the helix | X | | | | Fixed-pitch propellers | X | | | | Variable-pitch propellers | X | | | | Slipstream effect on the tail section | X | | | | Offset rudder considerations | X | | | 5.5. | Engine torque | | | | | Rolling effect with power | X | | | 5.6. | Stability in the air | | | | | Positive dynamic stability, neutral dynamic stability and negative dynamic stability | X | | | | Thrust line | X | | | 5.7. | Stability on the ground | | | | | Undercarriage design | X | | | | High CG | X | | | | Forces in a turn | X | | | 5.8. | Graph of power required | | | | | Power available | X | | | | Power required | X | | | | Maximum endurance speed | X | | | | Maximum range speed | X | | | 5.9. | Height/velocity considerations – gyroplanes | | | | | Height/velocity curve | X | | | 5.10. | Rotor dynamics | | | | | Components of a rotor | X | | | | Autorotation forces | X | | | | Driven, driving and stalled regions of a blade/disc | X | | | | Coning angle | X | | | | Blade pattern | X | | | | Blade tracking | X | | | | Blade balancing | X | | | | Underslung rotors | X | | | | Dissymmetry of lift | X | | | | Teetering to equality | X | | | | Conservation of angular momentum and the effect on rotor revolutions per minute | X | | | 6. | Operational procedures | GPL | | ---- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | --- | | 6.1 | General | | | | Operation of aircraft: ICAO Annex 6 – general requirements | | | | Definitions | X | | | Applicability | X | | 6.2 | Special operational procedures and hazards (general aspects) | X | | | Noise abatement | | | | Noise abatement procedures | X | | | Influence of the flight procedure (departure, cruise and approach) | X | | | Runway incursion awareness (meaning of surface markings and signals) | X | | | Fire or smoke | | | | Carburettor fire | X | | | Engine fire | X | | | Fire in the cabin and cockpit (choice of extinguishing agents according to fire classification and use of extinguishers) | X | | | Smoke in the cockpit (effects and action to be taken) and smoke in the cockpit and cabin (effects and action to be taken) | X | | | Windshear and microburst | | | | Effects and recognition during departure and approach | X | | | Actions to avoid and actions to be taken when encountered | X | | | Wake turbulence | | | | Cause | X | | | List of relevant parameters | X | | | Actions taken when crossing traffic and during take-off and landing | X | | 6.3 | Emergency and precautionary landings | | | | Definition | X | | | Cause | X | | | Passenger information | X | | | Evacuation | X | | | Action to be taken after landing | X | | 7. | Flight performance and planning | GPL | | 7.1. | Mass and balance – gyroplanes | | | | Purpose of mass and balance considerations | | | | Mass limitations | | | | Importance with regard to structural limitations | X | | | Importance with regard to performance limitations | X | | | CG limitations | | | | Importance with regard to stability and controllability | X | | | Importance with regard to performance | X | | | Loading | | | | Terminology | | | | Mass terms | X | | | Load terms (including fuel terms) | X | | | Mass limits | | | | Structural limitations | X | | | Performance limitations | X | | | Baggage compartment limitations | X | | | Mass calculations | | | | Maximum masses for take-off and landing | X | | | Use of standard masses for passengers, baggage and crew | X | | | Fundamentals of CG calculations | | | | Definition of CG | X | | | Conditions of equilibrium (balance of forces and balance of moments) | X | | | Basic CG calculations | X | | | Mass and balance details of aircraft | | | | Contents of mass and balance documentation | | | | Datum and moment arm | X | | | CG position as distance from datum | X | | | Extraction of basic mass and balance data from aircraft documentation | | | | BEM | X | | | CG position or moment at BEM | X | | | Deviations from standard configuration | X | | | Determination of CG position | | | | Methods | | | | Arithmetic method | X | | | Graphic method | X | | | Load and trim sheets | | | | General considerations | X | | | Load sheet and CG envelope for light aeroplanes and for helicopters | X | | 7.2. | Flight planning and flight monitoring | | | | Flight planning for VFR flights | | | | VFR navigation plan | | | | Routes, airfields, heights and altitudes from VFR charts | X | | | Courses and distances from VFR charts | X | | | Aerodrome charts and aerodrome directory | X | | | Communications and radio navigation planning data | X | | | Completion of navigation plan | X | | | Fuel planning | | | | General knowledge | X | | | Pre-flight calculation of fuel required | | | | Calculation of extra fuel | X | | | Completion of the fuel section of the navigation plan (fuel log) and calculation of total fuel | X | | | Pre-flight preparation | | | | AIP and NOTAM briefing | | | | Ground facilities and services | X | | | Departure, destination and alternate aerodromes | X | | | Airway routings and airspace structure | X | | | Meteorological briefing | | | | Extraction and analysis of relevant data from meteorological documents | X | | | ICAO flight plan (ATS flight plan) | | | | Individual flight plan | | | | Format of the flight plan | X | | | Completion of the flight plan | X | | | Submission of the flight plan | X | | | Flight monitoring and in-flight replanning | | | | Flight monitoring | | | | Monitoring of track and time | X | | | In-flight fuel management | X | | | In-flight replanning in the event of deviation from the planned data | X | | 7.3. | Performance – gyroplanes | | | | Introduction | | | | Stages of flight | X | | | Effect of gyroplane mass, wind, altitude, runway slope and runway conditions | X | | | Gradients | X | | | SP gyroplanes | | | | Definitions of terms and speeds | X | | | Take-off and landing performance | | | | Use of gyroplane flight manual data | X | | | Climb and cruise performance | | | | Use of [aeroplane](https://avioverse.aero/glossary/easa/aeroplane) flight data | X | | | Effect of density, altitude and gyroplane mass | X | | | Endurance and effects of the different recommended power or thrust settings | X | | | Still air range with various power or thrust settings | X | | 8. | Aircraft general knowledge – gyroplanes | GPL | | 8.1. | Envelope, airframe and systems, electrics, power plant and emergency equipment | | | | Main components of a gyroplane | X | | | Fuselage, doors, floor, windscreen and windows | X | | | Keel and mast | X | | | Rotorhead components and functionality | X | | | Tail components and functionality | X | | | Trim mechanisms | X | | | Pre-rotation mechanisms | X | | | Undercarriage, wheels, brakes and tyres | X | | | Piston engines | X | | | Principle of a two-stroke engine | X | | | Principle of a four-stroke engine | X | | | Fuel | X | | | Carburettor | X | | | Carburettor icing | X | | | Fuel injection | X | | | Air cooling | X | | | Water cooling | X | | | Lubrication systems | X | | | Ignition circuits | X | | | Electrics | X | | | Battery | X | | | Alternator | X | | | Generator | X | | | AC/DC | X | | | Circuit breakers | X | | | Propellers | X | | | Hydraulics | X | | | Pneumatics | X | | 8.2. | Instrumentation | | | | Static pressure | X | | | Dynamic pressure | X | | | Altimeter | X | | | Vertical speed indicator | X | | | ASI | X | | | Magnetic compass | X | | | Temperature senders | X | | | Rotor rpm mechanism | X | | | Exhaust gas sensors | X | | | GPS | X | AMC · AMC4 FCL.210; FCL.215 — Regulation (EU) No 1178/2011 · Aircrew Easy Access Rules · EAR revision 25 Nov 2025 [All rules in SUBPART C – PRIVATE PILOT LICENCE (PPL) AND GYROPLANE PILOT LICENCE (GPL)](https://avioverse.aero/regulations/easa/aircrew/part-fcl/subpart-c) Consolidated from the EASA Easy Access Rules (revision 25 Nov 2025, extracted 13 Oct 2026) for convenience. Not the official publication — verify against the Official Journal of the European Union and the EASA publications before operational use.